Abstract
This chapter examines publications on African American history in Japan from the end of World War II to the present, pointing out that the framework of Black history in postwar Japan has shifted from uniquely Japanese-style Marxist socioeconomic history to “new social history” to social-constructionist and transnational history. While Japan’s Black history has been sophisticated through these developments, it has also been Americanized, increasingly detached from contemporary Japanese sociopolitical contexts, and lost its uniqueness as Black history outside U.S. scholarship. The author argues that Black history in Japan should seek a new direction by integrating African American history with East-Asian comparative and trans-imperial histories.
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Notes
- 1.
Tsunehiko Kato, former president of Kokujin Kenkyu no Kai , or the Japan Black Studies Association (JBSA) narrates the association’s history and the trajectory of Black studies, especially focusing on Literature, in Japan. See his “The History of Black Studies in Japan: Origin and Development,” Journal of Black Studies 44, no. 8 (November 2013): 829–845.
- 2.
There is a comprehensive bibliography of African American history in Japan, though it does not cover the works published since 1985. See Koji Takenaka, “Nihon ni okeru Amerika Kokujinshi Kenkyū no Shigakushiteki Kento” [Historiographical Analysis of American Black History in Japan], Tokyo Daigaku Amerika Kenkyu Shiryo Senta Nenpo 7 (1984): 40–66.
- 3.
Yasaka Takagi, Beikoku Seijishi Josetsu [A Preface to American Political History] (Kyoto: Yuhikaku, 1931; reprinted in 1946); Takagi, “Amerika ni okeru Rekisi Kenkyū no Dōkō to Waga Kuni no Amerika Kenkyū ni kansuru Ichi Shisa” [The Trend of Historical Studies in the United States and a Suggestion for American Studies in Japan], Amerika Kenkyu 5 (October 1950), 41; Amerika Gakkai, ed., Genten Amerikashi [Primary Documents of American History], 5 vols. (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1950–57). Amerika Gakkai published a supplementary volume in 1958 including a brief reference to Brown v. Board of Education. As for the Dunning School and its disciples, see John David Smith and J. Vincent Lowery, eds., The Dunning School: Historians, Race, and the Meaning of Reconstruction (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2013).
- 4.
Amerika Gakkai, Genten Amerikashi, vol. 4 (1955), 6–7.
- 5.
Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944).
- 6.
Kaname Saruya, Amerika no Kokujin [Black people in America] (Tokyo: Kobundo, 1964), 205, 207–208.
- 7.
Kaname Saruya, Amerika Kokujin Kaihōshi [A History of Black American Liberation] (Tokyo: Saimaru Shuppan, 1968), 251.
- 8.
Ken’ichi Kikuchi, Amerika no Kokujin Dorei Seido to Nanboku Sensō [Black Slavery and the Civil War in the United States] (Tokyo: Miraisha, 1955), 19, 33.
- 9.
Kikuchi, Amerika no Kokujin Dorei Seido, 360–361.
- 10.
See Shigeki Toyama, Sengo no Rekisigaku to Rekishi Ninshiki [Postwar Historiography and Historical Consciousness] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1968); Hiroyuki Ninomiya, “Sengo Rekishigaku to Shakaishi” [Postwar Historiography and Social History], Rekishigaku Kenkyu 729 (October 1999): 21–27; Sebastian Conrad, The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century, trans. Alan Nothnagle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 14–16, 24–29, 49–62.
- 11.
Sozo Honda, Amerika Nanbu Doreisei Shakai no Keizai Kōzō [The Economic Structure of the American South’s Slavery Society] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1964), 12.
- 12.
Honda, Amerika Nanbu, 45, 132–133.
- 13.
Honda, Amerika Nanbu, 198–199.
- 14.
See, for example, Sozo Honda, “Furederikku Dagurasu to Nanboku Sensō” [Frederick Douglass and the Civil War], Rekishi Hyoron 67 (June 1955): 31–58; Sozo Honda, “Furederikku Dagurasu Kenkyu no Ichi Danshō: Dagurasu no Shusseinen no Kakutei wo megutte” [A Chapter in Frederick Douglass Studies: On Determining His Birth Year], Hitotsubashi Ronso 88 (July 1982): 1–19. Honda also wrote a biography of Douglass for teen readers. See Honda, Watashi wa Kokujin Dorei Datta: Furederikku Dagurasu no Monogatari [I Was a Black Slave: A Story of Frederick Douglass] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1987).
- 15.
Sozo Honda, Amerika Shakai to Kokujin: Kokujin Mondai no Rekishiteki Shōsatsu [The American Society and Black People: Historical Reflections on the Black Problem] (Tokyo: Otsuki Shoten, 1972), 238–239, 241.
- 16.
Honda, Amerika Shakai to Kokujin, 180.
- 17.
Ken’ichi Kikuchi, Amerika Dorei Seido to Kindai Shakai no Seichō [American Slavery and the Growth of the Modern Society] (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 1950), 129.
- 18.
Honda, Amerika Kokujin no Rekishi, 188.
- 19.
Saruya, Amerika Kokujin Kaihōshi, 248.
- 20.
Ken’ichi Kikuchi, Amerika ni okeru Zenshihonsei Isei [Pre-Capitalist Remnants in the United States] (Tokyo: Miraisha, 1955), 1.
- 21.
See, for example, Ken’ichi Kikuchi, Yoake no Kiroku: Nihon Michūrin Undō [A Record of Dawn: Japan’s Michurin Movement] (Tokyo: Rironsha, 1955).
- 22.
Honda, Amerika Shakai to Kokujin, 208–209. Saruya also made a brief reference to Japanese society’s problem of buraku discrimination. He interpreted it as personal bigotry remaining in many Japanese people’s hearts. “Even now not a few leading companies do not employ applicants from buraku , and many parents oppose their children’s marriage with partners from buraku . […] In Japan, unlike the United States, the population is homogeneous in race and skin color, and [ buraku people] have never been possessed as chattel slaves, but many people have failed in dispelling their outdated psychology.” See his Amerika Kokujin Kaihōshi, 247.
- 23.
John W. Dower, “Peace and Democracy in Two Systems: External Policy and Internal Conflict,” William W. Kelly, “Finding a Place in Metropolitan Japan: Ideologies, Institutions, and Everyday Life,” and J. Victor Koschmann, “Intellectuals and Politics,” in Postwar Japan as History, ed. Andrew Gordon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 3–33, 189–238, 395–423.
- 24.
Eiji Oguma, 1968: Hanran no Shūen to Sono Isan [1968: The end of the Revolt and Its legacy] (Tokyo: Shin’yosha, 2009), chapter 14.
- 25.
See, for example, David Eason, “Tracing the Path of ‘Medieval Travelers’: A Few Words on Yoshihiko Amino’s Historical Approach and Legacy,” Reviews of Japanese Culture and Society 19 (December 2007): 7–13; “Tokushū: Amino Yoshihiko” [Special Issue: Amino Yoshihiko], Gendai Shiso 42 (December 2014); Yukiharu Takeoka, Anāru Gakuha to Shakaishi: Atarashii Rekishi e mukatte [The Annales School and Social History: Toward a New History] (Tokyo: Dobunkan, 1990); Minoru Kawakita and Yukiharu Takeoka, Shakaishi e no Michi [The Road to Social History] (Kyoto: Yuhikaku, 1995).
- 26.
See, for example, Sozo Honda, “Hajimeni: Henja to shite” [Introduction from the Editor], in Amerika Shakaishi no Sekai [The World of the U.S. Social History], ed. Sozo Honda (Tokyo: Sanseido, 1989), iii–viii. Though he understood New Social History more simply as history of oppressed minorities’ protests against the mainstream than other contributors of the anthology, many Japanese scholars of American social history paid much attention to the rise of New Social History, and introduced the trend to Japanese readers. See, for example, Natsuki Aruga, “‘Atarashii Shakaishi’ no Kōzai: Amerika Rekishigaku no Yukue” [Merits and Demerits of “New Social History”: The Future of American History], in Gendai Amerikashizō no Saikōchiku: Seiji to Bunka no Gendaishi [Reconstructing the Image of Contemporary America: A Contemporary History of Politics and Culture], eds. Nagayo Homma, Shunsuke Kamei and Kenzaburo Shinkawa (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1990), 195–213.
- 27.
Susumu Nishikawa, “Dorei Komyuniti to Doraivā ni tsuite” [On the Slave community and Drivers], Amerikashi Kenkyu 6 (1983): 9–17; Susumu Nishikawa, “Dorei no Shūkyō to Hankō” [Slaves’ Religion and Their Revolt], Fukuoka Kyoiku Daigaku Kiyo 33, no. 2 (1983): 31–56; Susumu Nishikawa, “Dorei no Nazuke Shūkan ni tsuite: Sausu Karoraina no Bōru-ke Purantēshon wo Chūshin ni” [Slaves’ Custom of Naming Children: On the Ball Family Plantation in South Carolina], Fukuoka Kyoiku Daigaku Kiyo 40, no. 2 (1991): 15–36. George P. Rawick, Nichibotsu kara Yoake made: Amerika Kokujin Doreisei no Shakaishi [From Sundown to Sunup: A Social History of American Black Slavery], trans. Susumu Nishikawa (Tokyo: Tosui Shobo, 1986).
- 28.
Keiichi Nishide, “Nishi Indo Doreisei Shakai no Seiritsu: Barubadosu-tō Satō Kakumei no Bunseki” [Founding of the West Indian Slavery Society: An Analysis of Barbadian Sugar Revolution], Ritsumeikan Bungaku 408/409 (June and July 1979): 515–539, and 410/411 (August and September 1979): 747–776; Keiichi Nishide, “Minami Karoraina Kokujin Doreisei no Seiritsu: Karibu-gata Doreisei Shakai to shiteno Shotokuchō” [Founding of South Carolina Black Slavery: Several Characteristics as the Caribbean-Style Slavery Society], Seiyo Shigaku 133 (1984): 20–35.
- 29.
Ken Chujo, “Kokujin Daigaku no Shakaiteki Kinō to Yakuwari: Shō Daigaku wo Chūshin ni, 1865–1900” [Social Functions and Roles of HBCUs: A Case of Shaw University, 1865–1900], Amerikashi Kenkyu 11 (1988): 26–40; Ken Chujo, “Nanbu Kokujin no Kyōiku Tōsō: 19 Seiki Makki no Nōsu Karoraina-shū wo Chūshin ni” [Southern Black Struggle for Education: North Carolina in the Late Nineteenth Century], in Honda, Amerika Shakaishi no Sekai, 108.
- 30.
Masako Nakamura, “Amerikajin de aru Koto to Kokujin de aru Koto: W. E. B. Dyuboisu no Baai” [On Being American and Being Black: A Case of W. E. B. Du Bois], in Honda, Amerika Shakaishi no Sekai, 171–200; Masaki Kawashima, “Bukkā T. Washinton ni okeru ‘Jijo’ to ‘Rentai’: Beisei Sensō, Firipin Hanran wo megutte” [Booker T. Washington’s Ideas of “Self-Help” and “Solidarity”: Concerning the Spanish-American War and the Philippine Revolt], Shien 44 (June 1985): 79–118; Masaki Kawashima, “Atoranta Dakyō no Saikentō: Tasukīgi-kō wo meguru Bukkā T. Washinton no Kokujin ‘Jijo’ no Tenkai” [Reconsidering the “Atlanta Compromise”: The Development of Booker T. Washington’s Idea of Black Self-Help], Seiyo Shigaku 154 (1989): 97–113.
- 31.
Masaki Kawashima, Amerika Shiminken Undō no Rekishi: Rensa suru Chiiki Tōsō to Gasshūkoku Shakai [A History of American Civil Rights Movement: Linkage of Local Struggles and the U.S. Society] (Nagoya: Nagoya Daigaku Shuppankai, 2008).
- 32.
Koji Takenaka, Shikago Kokujin Getō Seiritsu no Shakaishi [A Social History of Founding of Chicago’s Black Ghetto] (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1995), 457–458.
- 33.
Shinobu Uesugi, Kōminken Undō e no Michi: Amerika Nanbu Nōson ni okeru Kokujin no Tatakai [The Road to the Civil Rights Movement: Black Struggles in the Rural South] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1998), 29.
- 34.
Hayumi Higuchi, “Shiroi Kakumei to Nanbu Shakai: 1898 Nen no Wiruminton no Baai” [White Revolution and the Southern Society: A Case of Wilmington in 1898], Amerika Kenkyu 13 (1979): 71–95; Hayumi Higuchi, “Saikenki ni okeru Hakujin Yūetsu Shugi no Taitō: Wiruminton no Baai” [The Rise of White Supremacy in the Reconstruction Era: A Case of Wilmington], Amerikashi Kenkyu 6 (1983): 29–41; Hayumi Higuchi, “Hakujin Yūetsu Shugi to Kokujin Shakai: Seiki Tenkanki no Nōsu Karoraina” [White Supremacy and the Black Society: North Carolina at the Turn of the Twentieth Century], Amerika Kenkyu 18 (1984): 134–156.
- 35.
Hayumi Higuchi, Amerika Kokujin to Hokubu Sangyō: Senkanki ni okeru Jinshu Ishiki no Keisei [Black Americans and the Northern Industry: Formations of Race Consciousness in the Interwar Period] (Tokyo: Sairyusha, 1997), 252.
- 36.
For example, see Hiroko Iwamoto, Amerika Kokujin Josei no Rekishi: 20 Seiki Shotō ni miru “Ūmanisuto” e no Kiseki [A History of American Black Women: A Road to “Womanists” in the Early Twentieth Century] (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1997).
- 37.
Kazuteru Omori, “‘Kokujinshi’ no Kyōkai / ‘Kokujin’ Shi no Genkai: Amerika Gasshūkoku ni okeru Kokujin Komyuniti Kenkyū no Dōkō wo Chūshin ni” [Boundaries of “Black History”/Limitations of “Black” History: On Historiography of Black Community Studies in the United States], Seiyo Shigaku 197 (2000), 70.
- 38.
Kazuteru Omori, “Jinshu Byōdō to Nōryoku Shugi no Sōkoku: Nanboku Sensō-go no Masachūsettsu-shū ni okeru Kōminkenhō no Seitei to Kokujin ‘Erīto’” [Contradiction of Racial Equality and Meritocracy: Black Elites and Legislation of the Civil Rights Act in the Postbellum Massachusetts], Amerika Kenkyu 32 (1998): 57–74; Kazuteru Omori, “Race-Neutral Individualism and Resurgence of the Color Line: Massachusetts Civil Rights Legislation, 1855–1895,” Journal of American Ethnic History 22, no. 1 (Fall 2002): 32–58; Kazuteru Omori, Afurikakei Amerikajin to iu Konnan: Dorei Kaihō-go no Kokujin Chisikijin to “Jinshu” [The Difficulty of Being African American: Black Intellectuals and “Race” after Emancipation] (Tokyo: Sairyusha, 2014). As for Liberia, see Kazuteru Omori, “‘Amerika’ wo Oimotomete: 19 Seiki Kōhan no Kokujin Kaihō Shisō ni okeru ‘Karā Rain’ to ‘Amerika’/‘Afurika’” [In Search of “America”: “Colorline” and “America”/“Africa” in Black Liberation Thoughts of the Late 19th Century], Amerika Kenkyu 28 (2005): 23–37; Kazuteru Omori, “‘Little America’ in Africa: Liberia as a Touchstone for African Americans,” Japanese Journal of American Studies 28 (2017): 47–60.
- 39.
Ayumu Kaneko, “A Strong Man to Run a Race: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Politics of Black Masculinity at the Turn of the Century,” Japanese Journal of American Studies 14 (2003): 105–122; Ayumu Kaneko, “Serufu Meido no Otoko to Onna: Zenkoku Kokujin Jitsugyō Renmei ni okeru Jinshu, Jendā oyobi Kaikyū” [Self-Made Men and Women: Race, Gender and Class in the National Negro Business League], in Rekishi no Naka no “Amerika”: Kokuminka wo meguru Katari to Sōzō [“America” in History: Narratives and Inventions in Nation-Building], eds. Higuchi Hayumi and Ken Chujo (Tokyo: Sairyusha, 2006), 225–245; Ayumu Kaneko, “Zenkoku Kokujin Jitsugyō Renmei to 20 Seiki Tenkanki ni okeru Rekishi no Kioku no Poritikusu” [National Negro Business League and the Politics of Historical Memory at the Turn of the Twentieth Century], Amerika Kenkyu 44 (2010): 1–18.
- 40.
Yasumasa Fujinaga, “Shikago Furīdamu Mūbumento: Tenkanki no Burakku Amerika to ‘Jinshu’ no Saikōchiku” [Chicago Freedom Movement: Black America in Transition and the Reconstruction of “Race”], Rekishigaku Kenkyu 758 (January 2002): 16–32; Yasumasa Fujinaga, “‘Nagaku Atsui Natsu’ Saikō: 60 Nendai Kokujin Radikaruzu no Sōzōryoku to Toshi Bōdō ni kansuru Ichi Kōsatsu” [Rethinking “the Long and Hot Summer”: A Remark on the Imagination of 1960s Black Radicals and Urban Riots], Yamaguchi Daigaku Bungaku Kaishi 58 (2008), 72; Yasumasa Fujinaga, “Burakku Pawā no Chōsen to Amerikan Riberarizumu no Kiki: Detoroito no Kokujin Radikaruzu to Nyū Detoroito Iinkai no Katsudō wo Chūshin ni” [Black Power’s Challenge to American Liberalism: A Case of Black Radicals in New Detroit Committee], Amerikashi Kenkyu 35 (2012): 40–58.
- 41.
Keiko Araki, “Mākasu Gāvī to Pan-Afurikanizumu: Amerika Gasshūkoku ni okeru Shoki no Shisō to Undō no Hensen” [Marcus Garvey and Pan-Africanism: His Early Idea in the United States and the Development of His Movement], Hogaku Seijigaku Ronkyu 61 (2004): 129–162; Keiko Araki, “Minami Afurika ni okeru Gāvīzumu no Tenkai: Pan-Afurikanizumu kara Afurikanizumu e” [The Development of Garveyism in South Africa: From Pan-Africanism to Africanism], Hogaku Seijigaku Ronkyu 72 (2007): 37–67; Keiko Araki, “Mākasu Gāvī no Shoki ni okeru Kiseki: Jamaika kara Burakku Atorantikku e” [Trajectory of Marcus Garvey’s Early Career: From Jamaica to the Black Atlantic], Tokai Daigaku Kiyo Kyoyo Gakubu 47 (2016): 61–80.
- 42.
Katsuyuki Murata, Afurikan Diasupora no Nyūyōku: Tayōsei ga Umidasu Jinshu Rentai no Katachi [African Diaspora’s New York: Forms of Racial Solidarity Born of Diversity] (Tokyo: Sairyusha, 2012); Katsuyuki Murata, “Solidarity Based Not on Sameness: Aspects of the Black-Palestinian Connection,” Japanese Journal of American Studies 28 (2017): 25–46. His argument is inspired by Mary C. Waters’s Black Identities: West Indian Immigrant Dreams and American Realities (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), but he emphasizes the significance of historical contingencies, focusing on police brutality and racial violence as critical moments.
- 43.
Shinobu Uesugi, “Komento: Amerika Kokujinshi Kenkyū” [Comment on the State of American Black History in Japan], Tokyo Daigaku Amerika Kenkyu Shiryo Senta Nenpo 7 (1984): 72.
- 44.
For examples, Reginald Kearney, African American Views of the Japanese: Solidarity or Sedition? (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998); Mark Gallicchio, The African-American Encounter with Japan and China: Black Internationalism in Asia, 1895–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); George Lipsitz, “‘Frantic to Join … the Japanese Army’: Black Soldiers and Civilians Confront the Asia Pacific War,” in Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s), eds. Takashi Fujitani, Geoffrey M. White, and Lisa Yoneyama (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 347–377; Bill V. Mullen, Afro-Orientalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004); Heike Raphael-Hernandez and Shannon Steen, eds., Afro-Asian Encounters: Culture, History, Politics (New York: NYU Press, 2006); Vince Shcleitwiler, Strange Fruit of the Black Pacific: Imperialism’s Racial Justice and Its Fugitives (New York: NYU Press, 2017). See also Yuko Takemoto, “W. E. B. Dyuboisu to Nihon” [W. E. B. Du Bois and Japan], Shien 54 (March 1994): 79–96. As for transpacific perspectives in general, see Janet Hoskins and Viet Thanh Nguyen, eds., Transpacific Studies: Framing an Emerging Field (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2014).
- 45.
Hiromi Furukawa and Tetsushi Furukawa, Nihonjin to Afurikakei Amerikajin: Nichibei Kankeishi ni okeru Sono Shosō [Japanese and African Americans: Historical Aspects of Their Relations] (Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2004).
- 46.
Fumiko Sakashita, “Lynching across the Pacific: Japanese Views and African American Responses in the Wartime Antilynching Campaign,” in Swift to Wrath: Lynching in Global Historical Perspective, eds. William D. Carrigan and Christopher Waldrep (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 181–214.
- 47.
Yuichiro Onishi, Transpacific Antiracism: Afro-Asian Solidarity in 20th-Century Black America, Japan, and Okinawa (New York: NYU Press, 2013).
- 48.
Yasuhiro Okada, “Race, Masculinity and Military Occupation: African American Soldiers Encounters with the Japanese at Camp Gifu, 1947–1951,” Journal of African American History 96, no. 2 (Spring 2011): 179–203; Yasuhiro Okada, “Negotiating Race and Womanhood across the Pacific: African American Women in Japan under U.S. Military Occupation, 1945–52,” Black Women, Gender and Families 6, no. 1 (Spring 2012): 71–96.
- 49.
Kazuyo Tsuchiya, “‘Kokujin Shingaku’ to Kawasaki ni okeru Zainichi no Shimin Undō: Ekkyō no naka no ‘Komyuniti’” [“Black Theology” and Zainichi People’s Civic Activism in Kawasaki: “Community” in Transborder], in Ryūdō suru Kokujin Komyuniti: Amerikashi wo Tou [Black Communities in Flux: Interrogating U.S. History], ed. Hayumi Higuchi (Tokyo: Sairyusha, 2012): 173–202; Kazuyo Tsuchiya, Reinventing Citizenship: Black Los Angeles, Korean Kawasaki, and Community Participation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014).
- 50.
Satoshi Mizutani, “Kan-Teikokushi Ron” [A Theory of Trans-Imperial History], in Nihon Shokuminchi Kenkyū no Ronten [Issues in Studies of Japanese Colonialism], ed. Nihon Shokuminchi Kenkyūkai [The Society of Japanese Colonialism Studies] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 2018), 218–227.
- 51.
Chōsen Sōtokufu Gakumukyoku [Education Division, Government-General of Korea], Amerika Gasshūkoku ni okeru Kokujin Kyōiku no Jōkyō [The State of Black Education in the United States of America] (Seoul: Chōsen Sōtokufu, 1920).
- 52.
Midori Kurokawa, “Jinshu Shugi to Buraku Sabetsu” [Racism and Buraku Discrimination], in Jinshu Gainen no Fuhensei wo Tou: Seiyōteki Parademu wo Koete [Rethinking the Concept of Race: Transcending the Western Paradigm], ed. Yasuko Takezawa (Kyoto: Jimbun Shoin, 2005), 276–297.
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Kaneko, A. (2019). From Localized Marxism to Americanized Sophistication and Beyond: Studies of Black History in Postwar Japan. In: Onishi, Y., Sakashita, F. (eds) Transpacific Correspondence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05457-1_6
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