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Introduction: The Pastoral Ideal of Thomas Jefferson

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The Politics of Southern Pastoral Literature, 1785–1885
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Abstract

The introduction to this volume establishes a connection between key elements of Jefferson’s political thinking and the European literary mode of the pastoral. After defining key terms such as pastoral and romance, Templeton draws attention to the significance of such literary conventions in the political value of the Virginian (and broader American) landscape, and to the important role that older European political and literary traditions have on the central figure in the Jeffersonian landscape—the yeoman farmer. The introduction concludes with an analysis of how race and slavery interact with these concepts.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    D.H. Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Literature (London: Penguin, 1990), 93.

  2. 2.

    V. L. Parrington, Main Currents in American Thought: The Romantic Revolution in America 1800–1860, vol. 2. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 29.

  3. 3.

    Harnett T. Kane, The Romantic South (New York: Coward-McCann, 1961), 13.

  4. 4.

    Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981), 104.

  5. 5.

    Paul Alpers, What is Pastoral? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 376.

  6. 6.

    William Empson, Some Versions of Pastoral (London: New Directions, 1974), 22.

  7. 7.

    Frank Kermode, ‘Nature vs. Art’, in The Pastoral Mode, ed. Bryan Loughrey (London: Macmillan, 1984), 95.

  8. 8.

    Roger Sales, English Literature in History 1780–1830: Pastoral and Politics (London: Hutchinson, 1983), 15.

  9. 9.

    Renato Poggioli, ‘Pastorals of Innocence and Happiness’, in The Pastoral Mode, ed. Bryan Loughrey (London: Macmillan, 1984), 98; Harry Levin, ‘The Golden Age’, in The Pastoral Mode, ed. Bryan Loughrey (London: Macmillan, 1984), 120.

  10. 10.

    Terry Gifford, Pastoral (London: Routledge, 1999), 32.

  11. 11.

    Raymond Williams, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), 17.

  12. 12.

    Gifford, Pastoral, 2.

  13. 13.

    W. H. Auden, ‘Arcadia and Utopia’, in The Pastoral Mode, ed. Bryan Loughrey (London: Macmillan, 1984), 90.

  14. 14.

    Auden, ‘Arcadia and Utopia’, 91.

  15. 15.

    Abel P. Upshur, ‘Mr. Jefferson’, Southern Literary Messenger; Devoted to Every Department of Literature and the Fine Arts 6, No. 9, 1840: 649.

  16. 16.

    Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), 3–19. See also Lewis P. Simpson, The Dispossessed Garden: Pastoral and History in Southern Literature (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1983), 23.

  17. 17.

    James Ellison, George Sandys: Travel, Colonialism and Tolerance in the 17th Century (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2002), 101.

  18. 18.

    Anonymous, ‘The Life of Thomas Jefferson’, The Athenaeum, June 4th 1859, 740.

  19. 19.

    Charles M. Andrews, The Colonial Period of American History: The Settlements, vol. 1 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1970), 127–128.

  20. 20.

    Richard Gray, Writing the South: Ideas of an American Region (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 1. See also Ellison, George Sandys, 89; Simpson, The Dispossessed Garden, 12.

  21. 21.

    Gifford, Pastoral, 33.

  22. 22.

    Gray, Writing the South, 3.

  23. 23.

    Sir Thomas More, Utopia, Trans. Ralph Robinson (Ware, Herts: Wordsworth, 1997), 34.

  24. 24.

    Robert C. Winthrop, Life and Letters of Robert Winthrop (Boston: Tickner and Fields, 1864), 309–310.

  25. 25.

    This argument has parallels with the transportation of patriarchal ideas as posited by the influential historian Anne Firor Scott. See The Southern Lady: From Pedestal to Politics 1830–1930 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995), 16.

  26. 26.

    Gray, Writing the South, 7.

  27. 27.

    Ellison, George Sandys, 158.

  28. 28.

    Gray, Writing the South, 3.

  29. 29.

    Louis B. Wright, The Cultural Life of the American Colonies 1607–1763 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1957), 1.

  30. 30.

    Wright, The Cultural Life of the American Colonies 1607–1763, 1.

  31. 31.

    Susan Scott Parrish, ‘Women’s Nature: Curiosity, Pastoral and the New Science in British America’, Early American Literature 37 (2002): 196.

  32. 32.

    Parrish, ‘Women’s Nature’, 198.

  33. 33.

    Richard Gray, A Web of Words: The Great Dialogue of Southern Literature (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008), 61.

  34. 34.

    Pramod K. Mishra, ‘All the World was America’, The New Centennial Review 2 (2002): 238.

  35. 35.

    See Tim Fulford and Carol Bolton (eds) Travel, Exploration, and Empires: Writings from the Era of Imperial Expansion, 1770–1885 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2001), 141.

  36. 36.

    Gilbert Chinard, Thomas Jefferson: The Apostle of Americanism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966), 120.

  37. 37.

    Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 1 (New York, Derby & Jackson, 1858), 364–365.

  38. 38.

    William Linn, The Life of Thomas Jefferson: Author of the Declaration of Independence , and Third President of the United States, third edition (Ithaca, NY: Andrus, Woodruff, and Gauntlett, 1843), 145. See also George Tucker, The Life of Thomas Jefferson, Third President of the United States, vol. 1 (London: Charles Knight, 1837), 193–195.

  39. 39.

    Merrill D. Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (New York: Oxford University Press, 1960, 9).

  40. 40.

    Joseph J. Ellis, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Vintage, 1998), 210.

  41. 41.

    Thomas Jefferson, and the New-York Evening Post. ‘The following letter of Thomas Jefferson has been published in several of the Pennsylvania prints.’ Augusta Chronicle, 22nd May 1830. 19th Century US Newspapers. Accessed 18 Jan. 2018.

  42. 42.

    Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind, 64.

  43. 43.

    Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. Frank Shuffelton (London: Penguin, 1999), 21. All subsequent references to this text will be given in parentheses.

  44. 44.

    Edmund Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, ed. Adam Phillips (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 67.

  45. 45.

    Marx, The Machine in the Garden, 120.

  46. 46.

    John Seelye, Beautiful Machine: Rivers and the Republican Plan 1755–1825 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 69.

  47. 47.

    John C. Shields, The American Aeneas: Classical Origins of the American Self (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2001), 283.

  48. 48.

    Mishra, ‘All the World was America’, 217.

  49. 49.

    Chinard, Thomas Jefferson, 132.

  50. 50.

    Marx, The Machine in the Garden, 121.

  51. 51.

    David Bell, ‘Knowledge and the Middle Landscape: Thomas Jefferson’s University of Virginia’, Journal of Architectural Education 27 (1983): 18.

  52. 52.

    Drew A. Swanson, Remaking Wormsloe Plantation: The Environmental History of a Low Country Landscape (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 9.

  53. 53.

    Williams, The Country and the City, 17.

  54. 54.

    Marx, The Machine in the Garden, 130.

  55. 55.

    For further discussion of the early stage of enclosures in England, see K.J. Allison, Deserted Villages (London: Macmillan, 1970), and M. W. Beresford and J. G. Hurst, Deserted Medieval Villages (London: Lutterworth Press, 1971).

  56. 56.

    Thomas Hallock, From the Fallen Tree: Frontier Narratives, Environmental Politics, and the Roots of a National Pastoral, 1749–1826 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 99.

  57. 57.

    Marx, The Machine in the Garden, 122–127.

  58. 58.

    Simpson, The Dispossessed Garden, xi.

  59. 59.

    William Barillas, The Midwestern Pastoral: Place and Landscape in Literature of the American Heartland (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006), 25.

  60. 60.

    Ritchie Devon Watson Jr., Yeoman vs. Cavalier: The Old Southwest’s Fictional Road to Rebellion (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1993), 7.

  61. 61.

    Brown Fehrenbacher, Tradition, Conflict, and Modernization: Perspectives on the American Revolution (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 74.

  62. 62.

    Fehrenbacher, Tradition, Conflict, and Modernization, 76.

  63. 63.

    Joyce E. Chaplin, An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730–1815 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 277.

  64. 64.

    Kermode, ‘Nature vs. Art’, 94.

  65. 65.

    Gray, Writing the South, 22.

  66. 66.

    Ari Helo, ‘Jefferson’s conception of Republican Government’, in The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Jefferson, ed. Frank Shuffelton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 41.

  67. 67.

    Poggioli, ‘Pastorals of Innocence and Happiness’, 101.

  68. 68.

    Gray, A Web of Words, 76.

  69. 69.

    Gray, Writing the South, 20.

  70. 70.

    Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), 15.

  71. 71.

    Eugene D. Genovese, The Political Economy of Slavery: Studies in the Economy and Society of the Slave South (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 264.

  72. 72.

    Thomas Hallock, ‘Notes on the State of Virginia and the Jeffersonian West’, in The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Jefferson, ed. Frank Shuffelton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 48.

  73. 73.

    Marx, The Machine in the Garden, 126.

  74. 74.

    Williams, The Country and the City, 55.

  75. 75.

    Poggioli, ‘Pastorals of Innocence and Happiness’, 100.

  76. 76.

    Roger G. Kennedy, Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause: Land, Farmers, Slavery and the Louisiana Purchase (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 9–12.

  77. 77.

    Kennedy, Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause, 41.

  78. 78.

    Lewis P. Simpson, ‘History, Idea of’, in The Companion to Southern Literature: Themes, Genres, Places, People, Movements and Motifs, ed. Joseph M. Flora and Lucinda Hardwick McKethan (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2002), 342.

  79. 79.

    For an intriguing, nuanced analysis of Virginia tobacco farmers and their approach to farming and sustainability, see Drew Swanson, A Golden Weed: Tobacco and the Environment in the Piedmont South (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014).

  80. 80.

    Gifford, Pastoral, 44.

  81. 81.

    Thomas Jefferson, ‘Letters 1785–1816’, in The Philosophy of Manufactures: Early Debates Over Industrialisation in the United States, ed. Michael Brewster Folsom and Steven D. Lubar (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 24.

  82. 82.

    Thomas Jefferson, ‘Letters 1785–1816’, 26.

  83. 83.

    Thomas Jefferson, ‘Letters 1785–1816’, 32.

  84. 84.

    Peterson, The Jefferson Image, 83. See also Darren Staloff, ‘The Politics of Pedagogy: Thomas Jefferson and the education of a democratic citizenry’, in The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Jefferson, ed. Frank Shuffelton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 127–142.

  85. 85.

    See Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind, 24.

  86. 86.

    Henry Clay, ‘Speech on Domestic Manufactures’ The Philosophy of Manufactures: Early Debates Over Industrialisation in the United States, ed. Michael Brewster Folsom and Steven D. Lubar (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982), 170.

  87. 87.

    Charles L. Sanford, ‘The Concept of the Sublime in the Works of Thomas Cole and William Cullen Bryant’, American Literature 28, (1957): 434.

  88. 88.

    Gray, Writing the South, 19. See also Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind, 68.

  89. 89.

    Peter S. Onuf, The Mind of Thomas Jefferson (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007), 118.

  90. 90.

    Gray, Writing the South, 20. See also Helo, ‘Jefferson’s conception of republican government’, 42.

  91. 91.

    Marx, The Machine in the Garden, 147.

  92. 92.

    Chinard, Thomas Jefferson, 327.

  93. 93.

    Marx, The Machine in the Garden, 150.

  94. 94.

    Mishra, ‘All the World was America’, 218.

  95. 95.

    Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Towards the Negro 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 433.

  96. 96.

    Michael Hardt, ‘Jefferson and Democracy’, American Quarterly 59 (2007): 49.

  97. 97.

    Timothy Sweet, ‘Projecting Early American Environmental Writing’, American Literary History 22 (2010): 423.

  98. 98.

    Gavin Wright, Slavery and American Economic Development (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2013), 9.

  99. 99.

    Kennedy, Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause, 13.

  100. 100.

    Christa Dierksheide, ‘“The great improvement and civilisation of that race”: Jefferson and the “Amelioration” of Slavery, ca. 1770–1826’, Early American Literature, 6, (2008): 172.

  101. 101.

    Kennedy, Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause, 15.

  102. 102.

    Frank Shuffelton, Introduction, in The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Jefferson, ed. Frank Shuffelton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 4; Jordan, White Over Black, 429.

  103. 103.

    Douglas R. Egerton, ‘Race and Slavery in the Era of Jefferson’ The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Jefferson, ed. Frank Shuffelton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 73; Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind, 49.

  104. 104.

    Lisa Woolfork, Embodying American Slavery in Contemporary Culture (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 10.

  105. 105.

    Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind, 49.

  106. 106.

    Jordan, White Over Black, 429–481.

  107. 107.

    Hardt, ‘Jefferson and Democracy’, 49.

  108. 108.

    Egerton, ‘Race and Slavery in the Era of Jefferson’, 77.

  109. 109.

    Egerton, ‘Race and Slavery in the Era of Jefferson’, 74.

  110. 110.

    Kennedy, Mr. Jefferson’s Lost Cause, 29.

  111. 111.

    Giles, Transatlantic Insurrections, 92.

  112. 112.

    Timothy Sweet, ‘Jefferson, Science and the Enlightenment’, in The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Jefferson, ed. Frank Shuffelton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 109.

  113. 113.

    Gene Andrew Jarrett, ‘“To Refute Mr. Jefferson’s Arguments Respecting Us”: Thomas Jefferson, David Walker, and the Politics of Early African American Literature’, Early American Literature 46 (2011): 293.

  114. 114.

    See S. Livermore, Twilight of Federalism: The Disintegration of the Federalist Party, 1815–1830 (New York, Gordian Press, 1972), 262–273.

  115. 115.

    For more on this election, see ‘“You Must Organize against Organization”: The Presidential Election of 1824’ in Daniel Peart, Era of Experimentation: American Political Practices in the Early Republic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2014), 108–138.

  116. 116.

    See Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Democracy, 1833–1845 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013).

  117. 117.

    See Michael Holt, The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).

  118. 118.

    Edward P. Crapol, John Tyler, The Accidental President (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 3.

  119. 119.

    Michael Perman, Road to Redemption: Southern Politics, 1869–1879 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983), 4.

  120. 120.

    See C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971).

  121. 121.

    Sharon D. Kennedy-Nolle, Writing Reconstruction: Race, Gender, and Citizenship in the Postwar South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 282.

  122. 122.

    See Steven Hahn, The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

  123. 123.

    Jordan, White Over Black, 441–442; W.M. Verhoeven and Amanda Gilroy, ‘Introduction’, in Gilbert Imlay, The Emigrants, ed. W.M. Verhoeven and Amanda Gilroy (London: Penguin, 1998), xx.

  124. 124.

    William R. Taylor, Cavalier & Yankee: The Old South and American National Character (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 237.

  125. 125.

    James Kirke Paulding, Letters From the South, Vol. 1 (New York: Harper, 1835), 195.

  126. 126.

    Jan Bakker, Pastoral in Antebellum Southern Romance (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 25; Taylor, Cavalier & Yankee, 317; Peterson, The Jefferson Image, 122.

  127. 127.

    Anonymous, ‘General Jackson.’ National Advocate, 12th March, 1824. 19th Century US Newspapers. Accessed 18 Jan. 2018.

  128. 128.

    Anonymous, ‘The Clay Affair.’ New-Hampshire Statesman, 14th February, 1825. 19th Century US Newspapers. Accessed 18 Jan. 2018.

  129. 129.

    Hallock, ‘Notes on the State of Virginia and the Jeffersonian West’, 56.

  130. 130.

    Vernon L. Parrington, Main Currents in American Thought: The Romantic Revolution in America (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 162.

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Templeton, P. (2019). Introduction: The Pastoral Ideal of Thomas Jefferson. In: The Politics of Southern Pastoral Literature, 1785–1885. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04888-4_1

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