Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Maintaining Cognitive “Fitness” in Older Adults

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Rehabilitation in Older Adults

Part of the book series: Handbooks in Health, Work, and Disability ((SHHDW))

  • 838 Accesses

Abstract

Age-related cognitive decline can appear to be inevitable. We should just resign ourselves to the fact that as we age we will forget where we parked the car, our reaction time will slow, and we will become more impulsive. Or should we? Evidence over the past 40 years indicates that there are stark differences between normal cognitive aging and healthy cognitive aging. In this chapter, we will discuss the relationship between physical health and cognitive health. Physical interventions that show promise at not only improving physical fitness but also cognitive “fitness” in older adults will also be described. By the end of this chapter, the reader will have a better understanding of the relationship between physical and cognitive fitness, the types of interventions that can improve both, and the mechanisms that are responsible for the improvement.

Physical fitness is not only one of the most important keys to a healthy body; it is the basis of dynamic and creative intellectual activity. Intelligence and skill can only function at the peak of their capacity when the body is healthy and strong.

—John F. Kennedy

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    For older adults with MCI or dementia, Groot et al. (2014) report no significant overall cognitive benefits of non-aerobic interventions. However, this meta-analysis included only patients with dementia (not those with MCI) and further grouped all non-aerobic interventions together, with the net result that few SRT interventions were incorporated into the analysis, and the effects of those that were included may have been washed out in aggregate effect estimates.

References

  • Bherer, L., Erickson, K. I., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2013). A review of the effects of physical activity and exercise on cognitive and brain functions in older adults. Journal of Aging Research, 2013, 8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/657508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolandzadeh, N., Tam, R., Handy, T. C., Nagamatsu, L. S., Hsu, C. L., Davis, J. C., … Liu-Ambrose, T. (2015). Resistance training and white matter lesion progression in older women: Exploratory analysis of a 12-month randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 63(10), 2052–2060. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.13644

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bossers, W. J. R., van der Woude, L. H. V., Boersma, F., Hortobágyi, T., Scherder, E. J. A., & van Heuvelen, M. J. G. (2015). A 9-week aerobic and strength training program improves cognitive and motor function in patients with dementia: A randomized, controlled trial. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23(11), 1106–1116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2014.12.191

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Candela, F., Zucchetti, G., Magistro, D., & Rabaglietti, E. (2015). The effects of a physical activity program and a cognitive training program on the long-term memory and selective attention of older adults: A comparative study. Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 39(1), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924788.2014.977191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassilhas, R. C., Viana, V. A. R., Grassmann, V., Santos, R. T., Santos, R. F., Tufik, S., & Mello, M. T. (2007). The impact of resistance exercise on the cognitive function of the elderly. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39(8), 1401–1407. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318060111f

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Y. K., Pan, C. Y, Chen, F. T., & Tsai, C. L. (2012). Effect of resistance-exercise training on cognitive function in healthy older adults: A review. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 20(4), 497–517. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.20.4.497

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colcombe, S., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14(2), 125–130. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01430

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Raz, N., Webb, A. G., Cohen, N. J., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans. The Journal of Gerontology: Series A, 58(2), M176–M180. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/58.2.M176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. C., Bryan, S., Marra, C. A., Sharma, D., Chan, A., Beattie, B. L., … Liu-Ambrose, T. (2013). An economic evaluation of resistance training and aerobic training versus balance and toning exercises in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. PLoS One, 8(5), e63031. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063031

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Desjardins-Crepeau, L., Berryman, N., Fraser, S., Vu, T. T. M., Kergoat, M.-J., Li, K., … Bherer, L. (2016). Effects of combined physical and cognitive training on fitness and neuropsychological outcomes in healthy older adults. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 11, 1287–1299. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S115711

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., … F, A. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017–3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, P. S., Perfilieva, E., Björk-Eriksson, T., Alborn, A., Nordborg, C., Peterson, D. A., & Gage, F. H. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Medicine, 4, 1313–1317. https://doi.org/10.1038/3305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gajewski, P. D., & Falkenstein, M. (2012). Training-induced improvement of response selection and error detection in aging assessed by task switching: Effects of cognitive, physical, and relaxation training. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 130. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00130

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, N., Singh, M. A. F., Sachdev, P. S., & Valenzuela, M. (2013). The effect of exercise training on cognitive function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21(11), 1086–1097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2013.02.018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gorbach, T., Pudas, S., Lundquist, A., Orädd, G., Josefsson, M., Salami, A., … Nyberg, L. (2017). Longitudinal association between hippocampus atrophy and episodic-memory decline. Neurobiology of Aging, 51, 167–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.12.002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gothe, N. P., Keswani, R. K., & McAuley, E. (2016). Yoga practice improves executive function by attenuating stress levels. Biological Psychology, 121(A), 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.10.010

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Groot, C., Hooghiemstra, A. M., Raijmakers, P. G., van Berckel, B. N., Scheltens, P., Scherder, E. J., van der Flier, W. M., & Ossenkoppele, R. (2016). The effect of physical activity on cognitive function in patients with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Ageing Research Reviews, 25, 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2015.11.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hariprasad, V. R., Koparde, V., Sivakumar, P. T., Varambally, S., Thirthalli, J., Varghese, M., … Gangadhar, B. N. (2013). Randomized clinical trial of yoga-based intervention in residents from elderly homes: Effects on cognitive function. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(Suppl 3), S357.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • He, W., Goodkind, D., Kowal, P., & U.S. Census Bureau. (March 2016). An Aging World: 2015 (international population reports, P95/16-1). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, M. E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B. A., Robertson, I. H., Walsh, C., & Brennan, S. (2014). The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 16, 12–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2014.05.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klusmann, V., Evers, A., Schwarzer, R., Schlattmann, P., Reischies, F. M., Heuser, I., & Dimeo, F. C. (2010). Complex mental and physical activity in older women and cognitive performance: A 6-month randomized controlled trial. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 65A(6), 680–688. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glq053

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Komulainen, P. M. K. T. A. L. K. S. M. H. V. K. T. H. R. R., Kivipelto, M., Lakka, T. A., Savonen, K., Hassinen, M., Kiviniemi, V., ... & Rauramaa, R. (2010). Exercise, fitness and cognition–A randomised controlled trial in older individuals: The DR’s EXTRA study. European Geriatric Medicine, 1(5), 266-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurger.2010.08.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, M. E., Neupert, S. D., Bertrand, R., & Jette, A. M. (2006). The effects of strength training on memory in older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 14(1), 59–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langlois, F., Vu, T. T. M., Chasse, K., Dupuis, G., Kergoat, M.-J., & Bherer, L. (2013). Benefits of physical exercise training on cognition and quality of life in frail older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68(3), 400–404. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs069

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linde, K., & Alfermann, D. (2014). Single versus combined cognitive and physical activity effects on fluid cognitive abilities of healthy older adults: A 4-month randomized controlled trial with follow-up. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 22(3), 302–313. https://doi.org/10.1123/JAPA.2012-0149

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu-Ambrose, T. (2010). Resistance training and executive functions: A 12-month randomized controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 170. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2009.494

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liu-Ambrose, T., Donaldson, M. G., Ahamed, Y., Graf, P., Cook, W. L., Close, J., … M, K. (2008). Otago home-based strength and balance retraining improves executive functioning in older fallers: A randomized controlled trial – Home exercise program and cognition. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 56(10), 1821–1830. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.01931.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu-Ambrose, T., Nagamatsu, L. S., Voss, M. W., Khan, K. M., & Handy, T. C. (2012). Resistance training and functional plasticity of the aging brain: A 12-month randomized controlled trial. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(8), 1690–1698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.05.010

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makizako, H., Doi, T., Shimada, H., Yoshida, D., Tsutsumimoto, K., Uemura, K., & Suzuki, T. (2012). Does a multicomponent exercise program improve dual-task performance in amnestic mild cognitive impairment? A randomized controlled trial. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(6), 640–646. https://doi.org/10.3275/8760.

  • Nagamatsu, L., Handy, T., Hsu, C. L., Voss, M., Chan, A., Davis, J. C., … Liu-Ambrose, T. (2012). Resistance training promotes cognitive functions and functional plasticity in senior women with probable mild cognitive impairment: A six-month randomized controlled trial. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 8(4), P522–P523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2012.05.1412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagamatsu, L. S., Chan, A., Davis, J. C., Beattie, B. L., Graf, P., Voss, M. W., … Liu-Ambrose, T. (2013). Physical activity improves verbal and spatial memory in older adults with probable mild cognitive impairment: A 6-month randomized controlled trial. Journal of Aging Research, 2013, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/861893

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nascimento, C., Pereira, J., Andrade, L., Garuffi, M., Talib, L., Forlenza, O., … Stella, F. (2014). Physical exercise in MCI elderly promotes reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and improvements on cognition and BDNF peripheral levels. Current Alzheimer Research, 11(8), 799–805. https://doi.org/10.2174/156720501108140910122849

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nascimento, C. M. C., Pereira, J. R., Pires de Andrade, L., Garuffi, M., Ayan, C., Kerr, D. S., … Stella, F. (2015). Physical exercise improves peripheral BDNF levels and cognitive function in mild cognitive impairment elderly with different BDNF val66met genotypes. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 43(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-140576

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nouchi, R., Taki, Y., Takeuchi, H., Sekiguchi, A., Hashizume, H., Nozawa, T., … Kawashima, R. (2014). Four weeks of combination exercise training improved executive functions, episodic memory, and processing speed in healthy elderly people: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial. Age, 36(2), 787–799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-013-9588-x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oken, B. S., Zajdel, D., Kishiyama, S., Flegal, K., Dehen, C., Haas, M., ... & Leyva, J. (2006). Randomized, controlled, six-month trial of yoga in healthy seniors: effects on cognition and quality of life. Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 12(1), 40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009). The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173–196. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Perrig-Chiello, P., Perrig, W. J., Ehrsam, R., Stähelin, H. B., & Krings, F. (1998). The effects of resistance training on well-being and memory in elderly volunteers. Age Ageing, 27, 496–475. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/27.4.469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rimmele, U., Zellweger, B. C., Marti, B., Seiler, R., Mohiyeddini, C., Ehlert, U., & Heinrichs, M. (2007). Trained men show lower cortisol, heart rate and psychological responses to psychosocial stress compared with untrained men. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32(6), 627–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.04.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz, J., Gil-Bea, F., Bustamante-Ara, N., Rodríguez-Romo, G., Fiuza-Luces, C., Serra-Rexach, J., … Lucia, A. (2014). Resistance training does not have an effect on cognition or related serum biomarkers in nonagenarians: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(01), 54–60. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1375693

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M., Uno, H., Rebert, C. S., & Finch, C. E. (1990). Hippocampal damage associated with prolonged glucocorticoid exposure in primates. The Journal of Neuroscience, 10(9), 2897–2902.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sink, K. M., Espeland, M. A., Castro, C. M., Church, T., Cohen, R., Dodson, J. A., … Williamson, J. D. (2015). Effect of a 24-month physical activity intervention vs health education on cognitive outcomes in sedentary older adults: The LIFE randomized trial. JAMA, 314(8), 781. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.9617

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spirduso, W. W., & Clifford, P. (1978). Replication of age and physical activity effects on reaction and movement time. Journal of Gerontology, 33(1), 26–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Squire, L. R. (2009). The legacy of patient H.M. for neuroscience. Neuron, 61(1), 6–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.12.023

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor-Piliae, R. E., Newell, K. A., Cherin, R., Lee, M. J., King, A. C., & Haskell, W. L. (2010). Effects of Tai Chi and Western exercise on physical and cognitive functioning in healthy community-dwelling older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 18(3), 261–279.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • ten Brinke, L. F., Bolandzadeh, N., Nagamatsu, L. S., Hsu, C. L., Davis, J. C., Miran-Khan, K., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2015). Aerobic exercise increases hippocampal volume in older women with probable mild cognitive impairment: a 6-month randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(4), 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2013-093184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tian, Q., Studenski, S. A., Resnick, S. M., Davatzikos, C., & Ferrucci, L. (2016). Midelife and late-life cardiorespiratory fitness and brain volume changes in late adulthood: Results from the Baltimore longitudinal study of aging. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 71(1), 124–130. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glv041

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsutsumi, T. (1997). The effects of strength training on mood, self-efficacy, cardiovascular reactivity and quality of life in older adults [dissertation]. Boston, MA: Boston University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van de Winckel, A., Feys, H., De Weerdt, W., & Dom, R. (2004). Cognitive and behavioural effects of music-based exercises in patients with dementia. Clinical Rehabilitation, 18(3), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1191/0269215504cr750oa

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Praag, H., Shubert, T., Zhao, C., & Gage, F. H. (2005). Exercise enhances learning and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice. The Journal of Neuroscience, 25(38), 8680–8685. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.1731-05.2005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, J. D., Espeland, M., Kritchevsky, S. B., Newman, A. B., King, A. C., Pahor, M., … for the LIFE Study Investigators. (2009). Changes in cognitive function in a randomized trial of physical activity: Results of the lifestyle interventions and independence for elders pilot study. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 64A(6), 688–694. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glp014

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Witte, K., Kropf, S., Darius, S., Emmermacher, P., & Böckelmann, I. (2016). Comparing the effectiveness of karate and fitness training on cognitive functioning in older adults—A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 5(4), 484–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2015.09.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

    John R. Biggan

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

    Emily C. Cunningham

Authors
  1. John R. Biggan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Emily C. Cunningham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John R. Biggan .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, College of Science, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA

    Robert J. Gatchel

  2. Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    Izabela Z. Schultz

  3. Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX, USA

    Christopher T. Ray

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Biggan, J.R., Cunningham, E.C. (2018). Maintaining Cognitive “Fitness” in Older Adults. In: Gatchel, R., Schultz, I., Ray, C. (eds) Handbook of Rehabilitation in Older Adults. Handbooks in Health, Work, and Disability. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03916-5_27

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation