Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Multilingual Education ((MULT,volume 31))

  • 609 Accesses

Abstract

The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is a multilingual country with an overall population of 1.3 billion people and 56 ethnic groups. Multilingual policy is deeply rooted in China’s historical legacy and power struggles. This chapter sketches the long history of China’s multilingual language policy from the Qin Dynasty to modern China, with a focus on the bilingual education for minorities since 1949. Adopting Spolsky’s theory of language policy, this chapter further builds the ecological framework for the study of language policy on the Yi.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Bibliography

  • Adamson, B., & Feng, A. W. (2014). Multilingual education: Lessons from China. Curriculum Perspectives, 34(1), 61–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). Discourse in the novel. In M. Holquist (Eds.), The dialogic imagination: Four essays by M.M. Bakhtin. (C. Emerson & M. Holquist, Trans.). Austin: University of Texas Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks, J. A. (2009). Multicultural education: Dimensions and paradigms. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), The Routledge international companion to multicultural education (pp. 9–32). New York: Routledge.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Banks, J. A. (2010). Multicultural education: Characteristics and goals. In J. A. Banks & C. A. M. G. Banks (Eds.), Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (pp. 3–32). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In K. M. Chun, P. B. Organista, & G. Marín (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement and applied research (pp. 17–37). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Blachford, R. D. Y. (1999). Language planning and bilingual education for minority students in China: A case study of the policy formulation and implementation process. Ph.D dissertation, University of Toronto.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackledge, A., & Creese, A. (2010). Multilingualism: A critical perspective. London: Continuum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power (G. Raymond & M. Adamson, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruhn, D. (2008). Minority language policy in china, with observations on the She ethnic group. Linguistics 250E – Endangered languages. Retrieved from http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~dwbruhn/dwbruhn_250E-paper.pdf

  • Cazden, C. B., & Snow, C. E. (1990). English plus: Issues in bilingual education. American Academy of Political and Social Science Annals, 508, 9–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coblin, W. S. (2000). A brief history of Mandarin. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120(4), 537–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dai, Q. X., & Cheng, Y. (2007). Typology of bilingualism and bilingual education in Chinese minority nationality regions. In A. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China: Practices, policies and concepts. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daily Newspaper. (2012). Forty percent of minority languages are endangered, protection needs united efforts [Sicheng shaoshu minzu yuyan mianlin bingwei, baohu xuyao duofang nuli]. News on Dec 19th, 2012, Retrieved July 24 2014 via http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2012/12-19/4421347.shtml

  • Davis, S. (2003). Premodern flows in postmodern China: Globalization and the Sipsongpanna Tais. Modern China, 29(2), 176–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Houwer, A. (1999). Environmental factors in early bilingual development: The role of parental beliefs and attitudes. In G. Extra & L. Verhoeven (Eds.), Bilingualism and migration (pp. 75–95). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ding, H., & Yu, L. (2013). The dilemma: A study of bilingual education policy in Yi minority schools in Liangshan. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 16, 451–470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eastman, C. (1985). Establishing social identity through language use. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EPRS. (2014). China: Assimilating or radicalising Uyghurs. Retrieved on Dec 15th, 2017 via http://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EPRS-AaG-538966-China-Assimilating-or-radicalising-Uighurs-FINAL.pdf

  • Erkin, A. (2009). Locally modern, globally Uyghur: Geography, identity and consumer culture in contemporary Xinjiang. Central Asian Survey, 28(4), 417–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fei, X. T. (1999). Zhonghua Minzu Duoyuanyiti Geju. Beijing: Minzu University of China Publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fei, X. T. (2003). Some monologues on culture self-consciousness. Academic Study, 7, 5–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng, A. W. (2007). Intercultural space for bilingual education. In A. W. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China: Practices, policies and concepts (pp. 259–286). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Feng, A. W., & Adamson, B. (2015). Researching trilingualism and trilingual education in China. In A. W. Feng & B. Adamson (Eds.), Trilingualism in education in China: Models and challenges (pp. 1–24). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feuchtwang, S. (2004). Theorising place. In S. Feuchtwang (Ed.), Making place: State projects, globalisation and local responses in China (pp. 3–33). London: UCL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishman, J. (1967). Bilingualism with and without diglossia. Journal of Social Issues, 23(2), 29–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, F. (2008). What it means to be a ‘model minority’: Voices of ethnic Koreans in northeast China. Asian Ethnicity, 9, 55–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, F. (2010). Bilingual education among ethnic Koreans in China: Ethnic language maintenance and upward social mobility. Chinese Education and Society, 43(1), 82–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, O. (2011). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giles, H., & Johnson, P. (1981). The role of language in ethnic group relations. In J. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup behavior (pp. 199–243). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, A., & Ferguson, J. (1992). Beyond “culture”: Space, identity, and the politics of difference. Cultural Anthropology, 7(1), 6–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, M. H. (2015). Lessons in being Chinese: Minority education and ethnic identity in southwest China. Washington, DC: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • He, B. (2005). Minority rights with Chinese characteristics. In W. Kymlicka & B. He (Eds.), Multiculturalism in Asia (pp. 56–79). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • He, B. (2014). The power of Chinese linguistic imperialism and its challenge to multicultural education. In J. Leibold & Y. B. Chen (Eds.), Minority education in China: Balancing unity and diversity in an era of critical pluralism (pp. 45–64). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heller, M., & Martin-Jones, M. (Eds.). (2001). Voices of authority: Education and linguistic diference. Westport: Ablex Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hult, F. M. (2009). Language ecology and linguistic landscape analysis. In E. Shohamy & D. Gorter (Eds.), Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery (pp. 88–104). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B., & Chhetri, N. (2002). Exclusionary policies and practices in Chinese minority education: The case of Tibetan education. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 2(2), 142–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamusella, T. (2009). The politics of language and nationalism in modern central Europe. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • King, K. A. (2001). Language revitalization processes and prospects: Quichua in the Ecuadorian Andes. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, W. E. (1977). Effects of bilingualism on the individual: Cognitive and socio-cultural consequences. In P. A. Hornby (Ed.), Bilingualism: Psychological, social and educational implications (pp. 15–28). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Law of the People’s Republic of China on Regional National Autonomy. (2001). Beijing: The ethnic publishing house. Retrived on Mar 13th, 2012 from http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/Special_NPC_Delegation/2007-12/13/content_1494002.htm

  • Li, D. C. S. (2006). Chinese as a lingua franca in greater China. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 149–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, J. (1997). Policies and practices of bilingual education for the minorities in China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 18(3), 193–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippi-Green, R. (1994). Accent, standard language ideology, and discriminatory pretext in the courts. Language in Society, 23, 163–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, A. M. C. (2009). Regional national autonomy and minority language rights in the PRC. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 16(3), 399–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, Y. (1985). Questions and answers about China’s nationalities. Beijing: World Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma, R. (2006). A new perspective in guiding ethnic relations in the 21st century-‘De-politicization’ of Ethnicity. Unpublished manuscript, Beijing University Department of Sociology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma, R. (2009). The development of minority education and the practice of bilingual education in Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous region. Frontiers of Education in China, 4(2), 188–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, R. (2012). Zuqun, Minzu Yu Guojia Goujian [Ethnicity, nationality and nation-building]. Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackerras, C. (2003). Ethnicity in Asia. New York: Routledge Curzon.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Millar, R. M. (2005). Language, nation and power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Milroy, J. (2001). Language ideologies and the consequences of standardization. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 5(4), 530–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China. (2001). Guidance on actively promoting English courses in primary schools. Retrieved on Dec 28th, 2016 from http://old.moe.gov.cn//publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_711/200407/665.html

  • Mühlhausler, P. (2003). Language of environment – Environment of language. A course in ecolinguistics. London: Battlebridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers-Scotton, C. (1983). The negotiation of identities in conversation: A theory of markedness and code choice. International Journal of Sociology of Language, 44, 115–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naran, B. (2014). How Do You Say “China” in Mongolian? Toward a Deeper Understanding of Multicultural Education in China. In J. Leibold & Y. B. Chen (Eds.), Minority education in China: Balancing unity and diversity in an era of critical pluralism (pp. 65–82). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China. (2011). China statistic yearbook. Retrieved on May. 9, 2013 from http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2011/indexeh.htm

  • Nilep, C. (2006). “Code Switching” in sociocultural linguistics. In Colorado research in linguistics (Vol. 19). Boulder: University of Colorado. Retrieved from http://nhlrc.ucla.edu/events/institute/2011/readings/He%20-%20Nilep.pdf

  • Norman, J. (1988). Chinese. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2007). No more failures ten steps to equity in education: Ten steps to equity in education. Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennycook, A. (2006). Postmodernism in language policy. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An introduction to language policy: Theory and methods (pp. 60–73). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Postiglione, G., Jiao, B., & Ji, M. (2007). Language in Tibetan education: The case of the Neidiban. In A. Feng (Ed.), Bilingual education in China: Practices, policies and concepts (pp. 49–71). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ricento, T. (2000). Historical and theoretical perspectives in language policy and planning. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4(2), 196–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ricento, T. (2006). Language policy: Theory and method. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodman, M. C. (1992). Empowering place: Multilocality and multivocality. American Anthropologist, 94(3), 640–656.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schiffman, H. F. (1996). Linguistic culture and language policy. London/New York: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Shenamujila, T. (1995). Mongolian language and script and the cognitive development of Mongol people. In The language and script use and development of the minority nationalities in China (pp. 16–22). Beijing: Zangwen Chubanshe (Tibetan Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shohamy, E. (2006). Language policy: Hidden agendas and new approaches. London: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in education or worldwide diversity and human rights. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spolsky, B. (2004). Language policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stites, R. (1999). Writing cultural boundaries: National minority language policy, literacy planning, and bilingual education. In G. Postiglione (Ed.), China’s national minority education. New York: Falmer Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swain, M., & Johnson, R. K. (1997). Immersion education: A category within bilingual education. In R. K. Johnson & M. Swain (Eds.), Immersion education: International perspectives (pp. 1–16). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Education Law of the People’s Republic of China. (1995). Retrieved on July 16, 2013 from http://www.gov.cn/banshi/2005-05/25/content_918.htm

  • Tian, J. (1993). Research on ethnic policies in China. Lanzhou: Qinghai Renmin Chubanshe (Qinghai People’s Publisher).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsung, L. (2009). Minority languages, education and communities in China. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tsung, L. (2014a). Trilingual education and school practice in Xinjiang. In J. Leibold & Y. B. Chen (Eds.), Minority education in China: Balancing unity and diversity in an era of critical pluralism (pp. 157–182). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsung, L. (2014b). Language power and hierarchy: Multilingual education in China. London: Bloomsbury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsung, L., & Clarke, M. (2010). Dilemmas of identity, language and culture in higher education in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30(1), 57–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, G. (2016). Pains and gains of ethnic multilingual learners in China. Singapore: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C., & Zhou, Q. (2003). Minority education in China: From state preferential policies to dislocated Tibetan schools. Educational Studies, 29(1), 85–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woolard, K. A. (2004). Is the past a foreign country? Time, language origins, and the nation in early modern Spain. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 14(1), 57–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, J. (2005). English as a third language among China’s ethnic minorities. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 8(6), 552–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, M. Y. (2015). Trapped in politicization of ethnicity: The dilemma in China’s ethnic minority education. Chinese Education & Society, 48, 327–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zentella, A. C. (1997). Growing up bilingual. Malden: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, M. (1999). The official national language and language attitudes of three ethnic minority groups in China. Language Problems and Language Planning, 23(2), 157–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, M. (2000). Language policy and illiteracy in ethnic minority communities in China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 21(2), 129–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, M. (2004). Minority language policy in China: Equality in theory and inequality in practice. In M. Zhou & H. Sun (Eds.), Language policy in the People’s Republic of China: Theory and practice since 1949 (pp. 71–95). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, M. (2012). Introduction: The contact between Putonghua (Modern Standard Chinese) and minority languages in China. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 215, 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, Z. (2007). State schooling and ethnic identity: Politics of a Tibetan Neidi secondary school in China. Lanham: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Zhang, L., Tsung, L. (2019). Introduction. In: Bilingual Education and Minority Language Maintenance in China. Multilingual Education, vol 31. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03454-2_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03454-2_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-03453-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-03454-2

  • eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics