Abstract
Late toddlerhood is a time of tremendous growth during which toddlers both contribute to and learn from important relationships, such as those with parents, siblings, and caregivers. Developmental growth in self-awareness and identity; the expression of emotion, language, and communication skills; emerging self-regulation skills; and budding social interests serve as the undergirding for toddlers’ burgeoning abilities to engage with and learn from the world around them. These emerging social-emotional competencies are supported by parents’ and caregivers’ practices in the context of secure relationships within family and early childcare environments. The behaviors that promote young children’s social-emotional competencies are called “emotion socialization practices.” In recent years, our understanding of how adults’ capacities to engage in emotion socialization with toddlers and young children and the effects of these practices on young children’s development have widely expanded, providing important information about how to support toddlers’ competencies. The purposes of this chapter are to outline key developmental milestones unique to social-emotional development in late toddlerhood and to examine the ways in which family and early childcare contexts and adults’ emotion socialization practices promote toddlers’ social-emotional competencies. We also examine characteristics associated with adults’ emotion socialization practices, including methods for assessing adults’ practices in the context of adult-child relationships, in order to develop effective interventions and support programs for parents, caregivers, and the toddlers for whom they care.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aber, J., Slade, A., Berger, B., Bresgi, I., & Kaplan, M. (1985). The parent development interview. Unpublished manuscript.
Ahn, H. J. (2005). Teachers’ discussions of emotion in child care centers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(4), 237–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-004-1424-6.
Ahn, H. J., & Stifter, C. (2006). Child care teachers’ response to children’s emotional expression. Early Education and Development, 17(2), 253–270. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15566935eed1702_3.
Barbaro, J., & Dissanayake, C. (2013). Early markers of autism spectrum disorders in infants and toddlers prospectively identified in the Social Attention and Communication Study. Autism, 17(1), 64–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361312442597.
Bocknek, E. L., Hossain, Z., & Roggman, L. (2014). Forward progress of scientific inquiry into the early father–child relationship: Introduction to the special issue on very young children and their fathers. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(5), 389–393. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21475.
Bocknek, E. L., Lewis, M. L., & Raveau, H. A. (2017). African American fathers’ mental health & child well-being: A cultural practices, strengths-based perspective. In I. Iruka, S. Curenton, & T. Darden (Eds.), African American children in early childhood education: Making the case for policy investments in families, schools, and communities (pp. 221–243). Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing Limited.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x.
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., Skuban, E. M., & Horwitz, S. M. (2001). Prevalence of social-emotional and behavioral problems in a community sample of 1-and 2-year-old children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(7), 811–819. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200107000-00016.
Brophy-Herb, H. E., Bocknek, E., Vallotton, C., Stansbury, K., Senehi, N., Dalimonte-Merckling, D., & Lee, Y. (2015). Toddlers with early behavior problems at higher family demographic risk benefit the most from maternal emotion talk. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 36(7), 512–520. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000196.
Brophy-Herb, H. E., Dalimonte-Merckling, D., Senehi, N., & Kwon, A. (2016). The role of emotion socialization in child flourishing. In D. Narvez, J. Braungart-Rieker, L. Miller, L. Gettler, & P. Hastings (Eds.), Contexts for young child flourishing: Evolution, family and society (pp. 79–101). New York: Oxford University Press.
Brophy-Herb, H. E., Stansbury, K., Bocknek, E., & Horodynski, M. (2012). Modeling emotion-related parenting in a low-income sample and relations with toddlers’ self regulation. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27, 352–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.11.005.
Brownell, C. A., & Kopp, C. B. (Eds.). (2010). Socioemotional development in the toddler years: Transitions and transformations. New York: Guilford Press.
Brownell, C. A., Svetlova, M., Anderson, R., Nichols, S. R., & Drummond, J. (2013). Socialization of early prosocial behavior: Parents’ talk about emotions is associated with sharing and helping in toddlers. Infancy, 18(1), 91–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7078.2012.00125.x.
Cabrera, N., Moore, K., Bronte-Tinkew, J., Halle, T., West, J., Brooks-Gunn, J., et al. (2004). The DADS initiative: Measuring father involvement in large-scale surveys. In R. Day & M. Lamb (Eds.), Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement (pp. 417–452). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cabrera, N. J., Ryan, R. M., Mitchell, S. J., Shannon, J. D., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2008). Low-income, nonresident father involvement with their toddlers: Variation by fathers’ race and ethnicity. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(4), 643. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.643.
Calkins, S. D. (2007). The emergence of self-regulation: Biological and behavioral control mechanisms supporting toddler competencies. In C. Brownell & C. Kopp (Eds.), Socioemotional development in the toddler years: Transitions and transformations (pp. 261–284). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Campbell, S. B., Leezenbaum, N. B., Mahoney, A. S., Moore, E. L., & Brownell, C. A. (2016). Pretend play and social engagement in toddlers at high and low genetic risk for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(7), 2305–2316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2764-y.
Carter, A. S., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Davis, N. O. (2004). Assessment of young children’s social-emotional development and psychopathology: Recent advances and recommendations for practice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00316.x.
Coatsworth, J. D., Duncan, L. G., Greenberg, M. T., & Nix, R. L. (2010). Changing parents’ mindfulness, child management skills and relationship quality with their youth: Results from a randomized pilot intervention trial. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 203–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-009-9304-8.
Cole, P., Tan, P., Hall, S., Zhang, Y., Crnic, K., Blair, C., & Li, R. (2011). Developmental changes in anger expression and attention focus: Learning to wait. Developmental Psychology, 47(4), 1078–1089. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023813.
Cole, P. M., Armstrong, L. M., & Pemberton, C. K. (2010). The role of language development of emotion regulation. In S. D. Calkins & M. A. Bell (Eds.), Child development at the intersection of emotion and cognition (pp. 59–77). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75(2), 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00673.x.
DeOliveira, C. A., Bailey, H. N., Moran, G., & Pederson, D. R. (2004). Emotion socialization as a framework for understanding the development of disorganized attachment. Social Development, 13(3), 437–467. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00276.x.
Doan, T., Denison, S., Lucas, C. G., & Gopnik, A. (2015). Learning to reason about desires: An infant training study. Retrieved at https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7a45/99a1ed22e8f2595ac707020ce7712e30ebc8.pdf
Duncan, L. G. (2007). Assessment of mindful parenting among parents of early adolescents: Development and validation of the interpersonal mindfulness in parenting scale. Unpublished dissertation.
Duncan, L. G., Coatsworth, J. D., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). A model of mindful parenting: Implications for parent–child relationships and prevention research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12(3), 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0046-3.
Dunn, J., & Hughes, C.B. (2005). Inner state coding manual. Unpublished manuscript.
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9(4), 241–273. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1.
Eisenberg, N., Sadovsky, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2005). Associations of emotion-related regulation with language skills, emotion knowledge, and academic outcomes. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, (109), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.143.
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., & Bernzweig, J. (1990). Coping with children’s negative emotions scale (CCNES): Description and scoring. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University.
Fiese, B. H., Tomcho, T. J., Douglas, M., Josephs, K., Poltrock, S., & Baker, T. (2002). A review of 50 years of research on naturally occurring family routines and rituals: Cause for celebration? Journal of Family Psychology, 16(4), 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.16.4.381.
Fitzgerald, H. E., Bocknek, E. L., Hossain, Z, & Roggman. L. (2015). Reflections on fathers and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health, 36(1),75–77.
Fitzgerald, H. E., Mann, T., & Barratt, M. (1999). Fathers and infants. Infant Mental Health Journal: Official Publication of The World Association for Infant Mental Health, 20(3), 213–221.
Flavell, J. H. (2004). Theory-of-mind development: Retrospect and prospect. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50(3), 274–290. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2004.0018.
Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., & Jurist, E. L. (Eds.). (2004). Affect regulation, mentalization and the development of the self. London: Karnac Books.
Fouts, H. N., Roopnarine, J. L., Lamb, M. E., & Evans, M. (2010). Infant social interactions with multiple caregivers: The importance of ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43, 328–348. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110388564.
Frank, J. L., Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2016). Validation of the mindfulness in teaching scale. Mindfulness, 7(1), 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0461-0.
Garrett-Peters, P., Mills-Koonce, R., Adkins, D., Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., & Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2008). Early environmental correlates of maternal emotion talk. Parenting: Science and Practice, 8(2), 117–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190802058900.
Garrett-Peters, P., Mills-Koonce, R., Zerwas, S., Cox, M., & Vernon-Feagans, L. (2011). Fathers’ early emotion talk: Associations with income, ethnicity, and family factors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(2), 335–353. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00810.x.
Gilliam, W. S. (2007). Early childhood consultation partnership: Results of a random-controlled evaluation. In Final Report and Executive Summary. New Haven, CT: Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine.
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10(3), 243–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.10.3.243.
Grazzani, I., Ornaghi, V., Agliati, A., & Brazzelli, E. (2015). How to foster toddlers’ mental-state talk, emotion understanding, and prosocial behavior: A conversation-based intervention at nursery school. Infancy, 21(2), 199–227. https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12107.
Grolnick, W. S., Bridges, L. J., & Connell, J. P. (1996). Emotion regulation in two-year-olds: Strategies and emotional expression in four contexts. Child Development, 67(3), 928–941. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01774.x.
Gu, J., Strauss, C., Bond, R., & Cavanagh, K. (2015). How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of mediation studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 37, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.006.
Halberstadt, A. G., Cassidy, J., Stifter, C. A., Parke, R. D., & Fox, N. A. (1995). Self-expressiveness within the family context: Psychometric support for a new measure. Psychological Assessment, 7(1), 93. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.1.93.
Hawa, V. V., & Spanoudis, G. (2014). Toddlers with delayed expressive language: An overview of the characteristics, risk factors and language outcomes. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(2), 400–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.10.027.
Hooven, C., Katz, L. F., & Mittman, A. (1996). The meta-emotion coding system: Parent meta-emotion philosophy and family of origin coding manual. Unpublished manuscript, University of Washington.
Jennings, P. A. (2015). Early childhood teachers’ well-being, mindfulness, and self-compassion in relation to classroom quality and attitudes towards challenging students. Mindfulness, 6(4), 732–743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0312-4.
Karberg, E., & Cabrera, N. (2016). Latino father involvement in the United States. In Encyclopedia of early childhood development (pp. 1–7). Retrieved from http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/textes-experts/en/4513/latino-father-involvement-in-the-united-states.pdf.
Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1986). The meta-emotion interview. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. Unpublished manuscript.
Knafo, A., Zahn-Waxler, C., Van Hulle, C., Robinson, J. L., & Rhee, S. H. (2008). The developmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions. Emotion, 8(6), 737–752. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014179.
Kochanska, G., & Aksan, N. (1995). Mother-child mutually positive affect, the quality of child compliance to requests and prohibitions, and maternal control as correlates of early internalization. Child Development, 66(1), 236–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00868.x.
Kochanska, G., Coy, K. C., & Murray, K. T. (2001). The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life. Child Development, 72(4), 1091–1111. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00336.
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., & Coy, K. C. (1997). Inhibitory control as a contributor to conscience in childhood: From toddler to early school age. Child Development, 68(2), 263–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01939.x.
Kopp, C. B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18(2), 199. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.18.2.199.
Leavell, A. S., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Ruble, D. N., Zosuls, K. M., & Cabrera, N. J. (2012). African American, White and Latino fathers’ activities with their sons and daughters in early childhood. Sex Roles, 66(1–2), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0080-8.
Lewis, M. (2008). Self-conscious emotions. Embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. Feldman Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 742–756). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (2004). Development of self-recognition, personal pronoun use, and pretend play during the 2nd year. Child Development, 75(6), 1821–1831. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00819.x.
Malin, J. L., Cabrera, N. J., Karberg, E., & Taschman, K. (2016). A family systems approach to examining young children’s social development. In L. Balter & C. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 355–378). New York, NY: Routledge.
Masten, A. S., & Powell, J. L. (2003). A resilience framework for research, policy, and practice. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 1–25). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Meins, E., Centifanti, L. C. M., Fernyhough, C., & Fishburn, S. (2013). Maternal mind-mindedness and children’s behavioral difficulties: Mitigating the impact of low socioeconomic status. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(4), 543–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9699-3.
Meins, E., & Fernyhough, C. (2010). Mind-mindedness coding manual, version 2.0. Durham, UK: Durham University. Unpublished manuscript.
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., & Harris-Waller, J. (2014). Is mind-mindedness trait-like or a quality of close relationships? Evidence from descriptions of significant others, famous people, and works of art. Cognition, 130(3), 417–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2013.11.009.
Mesman, J., & Koot, H. M. (2001). Early preschool predictors of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing DSM-IV diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(9), 1029–1036. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200109000-00011.
Miller, R. L., Dunsmore, J. C., & Smith, C. L. (2015). Effortful control and parents’ emotion socialization patterns predict children’s positive social behavior: A person-centered approach. Early Education and Development, 26(2), 167–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.975034.
Minuchin, P. (1985). Families and individual development: Provocations from the field of family therapy. Child Development, 56, 289–302. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129720.
Morasch, K. C., & Bell, M. A. (2011). The role of inhibitory control in behavioral and physiological expressions of toddler executive function. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(3), 593–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.07.003.
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.x.
Morris, C. A., Denham, S. A., Bassett, H. H., & Curby, T. W. (2013). Relations among teachers’ emotion socialization beliefs and practices and preschoolers’ emotional competence. Early Education & Development, 24(7), 979–999. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2013.825186.
Neece, C. L. (2014). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for parents of young children with developmental delays: Implications for parental mental health and child behavior problems. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 27(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.12064.
Nelson, J. A., O’Brien, M., Blankson, A. N., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2009). Family stress and parental responses to children’s negative emotions: Tests of the spillover, crossover, and compensatory hypotheses. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(5), 671–679. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015977.
Paquette, D. (2004). Theorizing the father-child relationship: Mechanisms and developmental outcomes. Human Development, 47(4), 193–219. https://doi.org/10.1159/000078723.
Perry, D. F., Allen, M. D., Brennan, E. M., & Bradley, J. R. (2010). The evidence base for mental health consultation in early childhood settings: A research synthesis addressing children’s behavioral outcomes. Early Education and Development, 21(6), 795–824. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280903475444.
Plumb, A. M., & Wetherby, A. M. (2013). Vocalization development in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56(2), 721–734. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2012/11-0104.
Poehlmann, J. (2003). An attachment perspective on grandparents raising their very young grandchildren: Implications for intervention and research. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(2), 149–173. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.10047.
Powell, D., & Dunlap, G. (2009). Evidence-based social-emotional curricula and intervention packages for children 0-5 years and their families (roadmap to effective intervention practices). Tampa, FL: University of South Florida, Technical Assistance Center on Social Emotional Intervention for Young Children. Retrieved from http://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu/do/resources/documents/roadmap_2.pdf.
Pudasainee-Kapri, S., & Razza, R. A. (2015). Associations among supportive coparenting, father engagement and attachment: The role of race/ethnicity. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(12), 3793–3804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0187-6.
Repacholi, B. M., & Gopnik, A. (1997). Early reasoning about desires: Evidence from 14-and 18-month-olds. Developmental Psychology, 33(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.33.1.12.
Roben, C. K. P., Cole, P. M., & Armstrong, L. M. (2013). Longitudinal relations among language skills, anger expression, and regulatory strategies in early childhood. Child Development, 84(3), 891–905. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12027.
Rocissano, L., Slade, A., & Lynch, V. (1987). Dyadic synchrony and toddler compliance. Developmental Psychology, 23(5), 698. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.23.5.698.
Rosenblum, K. L., McDonough, S. C., Sameroff, A. J., & Muzik, M. (2008). Reflection in thought and action: Maternal parenting reflectivity predicts mind-minded comments and interactive behavior. Infant Mental Health Journal, 29(4), 362–376. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20184.
Rothbart, M. K., Ellis, L. K., & Posner, M. I. (2004). Temperament and self-regulation. Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications, 2, 441–460.
Sameroff, A. J., & Fiese, B. H. (2000). Transactional regulation: The developmental ecology of early intervention. In J. Shonkoff & S. Meisels (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention, 2 (pp. 135–159). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schiborr, J., Lotzin, A., Romer, G., Schulte-Markwort, M., & Ramsauer, B. (2013). Child-focused maternal mentalization: A systematic review of measurement tools from birth to three. Measurement, 46(8), 2492–2509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2013.05.007.
Siegel, D., & Hartzell, M. (2003). Parenting from the inside out. New York, NY: Jeremy P. Tarcher.
Singh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Winton, A. S., Fisher, B. C., Wahler, R. G., Mcaleavey, K., et al. (2006). Mindful parenting decreases aggression, noncompliance, and self-injury in children with autism. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14(3), 169–177. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/10634266060140030401.
Slade, A. (2005). Parental reflective functioning: An introduction. Attachment & Human Development, 7(3), 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730500245906.
Slade, A., Bernbach, E., Grienenberger, J., Levy, D., & Locker, A. (2004). Addendum to Fonagy, Target, Steele, & Steele reflective functioning scoring manual for use with the Parent Development Interview, Unpublished manuscript. New York, NY: The City University of New York.
Slopen, N., Fitzmaurice, G., Williams, D. R., & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Poverty, food insecurity, and the behavior for childhood internalizing and externalizing disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(5), 444–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.01.018.
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Kupfer, A., Gaertner, B., & Michalik, N. (2004, May). The coping with toddlers’ negative emotions scale. Poster session presented at the Biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, Chicago, IL.
Stacks, A. M., Muzik, M., Wong, K., Beeghly, M., Huth-Bocks, A., Irwin, J. L., & Rosenblum, K. L. (2014). Maternal reflective functioning among mothers with childhood maltreatment histories: Links to sensitive parenting and infant attachment security. Attachment & Human Development, 16(5), 515–533. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2014.935452.
Stacks, A. M., Wong, K., & Dykehouse, T. (2013). Teacher reflective functioning: A preliminary study of measurement and self-reported teaching behavior. Reflective Practice, 14(4), 487–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2013.806298.
Stansbury, K., & Zimmermann, L. K. (1999). Relations among language skills, maternal socialization of emotion regulation, and child be-havior problems. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 30(2), 121–142. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021954402840.
Taumoepeau, M., & Ruffman, T. (2006). Mother and infant talk about mental states relates to desire language and emotion understanding. Child Development, 77, 465–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00882.x.
US Census. (2013). Who’s minding the kids? Childcare arrangements: Spring 2011. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p70-135.pdf
Vallotton, C. (2008). Infants take self-regulation into their own hands. Zero To Three Journal, 29, 29–34. Retrieved from https://www.theactgroup.com.au/documents/SelfRegulation.pdf.
Van Ijzendoorn, M. (1995). Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the adult attachment interview. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 387. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.387.
Vick-Whittaker, J. E., & Harden-Jones, B. J. (2010). Beyond ABCs and 123s: Enhancing teacher–child relationship quality to promote children’s behavioral development. NHSA Dialog, 13(3), 185–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/15240754.2010.493472.
Virmani, E., & Ontai, L. L. (2010). Supervision and training in child care: Does reflective supervision foster caregiver insightfulness? Infant Mental Health Journal, 31(1), 16–32. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20240.
Zeegers, M., Colonnesi, C., Stams, G. J., & Meins, E. (2017). Mind matters: A three-level meta-analysis on parental mentalization and sensitivity as predictors of infant-parent attachment. Psychological Bulletin, 143(12), 1245–1272.
Zeman, J., Cassano, M., Perry-Parrish, C., & Stegall, S. (2006). Emotion regulation in children and adolescents. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(2), 155–168 doi: 0196-206X/06/2702-0155.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Brophy-Herb, H.E., Bocknek, E.L., Choi, H.H., Senehi, N., Douglas, S.N. (2018). Terrific Twos: Promoting Toddlers’ Competencies in the Context of Important Relationships. In: Morris, A., Williamson, A. (eds) Building Early Social and Emotional Relationships with Infants and Toddlers. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03110-7_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03110-7_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-03109-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-03110-7
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)