Abstract
As soon as the environmental issues started to be recognised as a transnational cross- border and cross-cutting long-lasting challenge, the European Union (EU) has sought to become a relevant player in the regulation and fight against climate change. The 1986 Single European Act, the Europe 2020 Strategy, the Framework for Climate and Energy 2030 or the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and Paris Agreement (2015) clearly illustrates the policies and commitments that the EU is being pursuing towards a political climate model and a global environmental governance. But is the EU’s authority in environmental issues externally recognised in the diplomatic arena? Moreover, has the environmental acquis led to more cohesion among Member States and a harmonisation of the EU policies for more autonomy? Caporaso and Jupille’s four components to address an actor’s capacity in global politics—recognition, authority, autonomy and cohesion—pave the way to the theoretical analysis and to identify some remaining shortfalls to succeed in the “green” roadmap targeted to the next decade.
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Notes
- 1.
The world population is expected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100. By 2050, China, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Pakistan and the USA are expected to exceed 300 million people, while those aged 60 or above will be more than double by 2050 and more than triple by 2100 (UNDESA 2015).
- 2.
Environmental protection requirements must be integrated into the definition and implementation of the Union’s policies and activities, in particular with a view to promoting sustainable development.
- 3.
Article 191
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1.
Union policy on the environment shall contribute to pursuit of the following objectives: preserving, protecting and improving the quality of the environment, protecting human health, prudent and rational utilisation of natural resources, promoting measures at international level to deal with regional or worldwide environmental problems, and in particular combating climate change.
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2.
Union policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Union. It shall be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damage should as a priority be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay.
In this context, harmonisation measures answering environmental protection requirements shall include, where appropriate, a safeguard clause allowing Member States to take provisional measures, for non-economic environmental reasons, subject to a procedure of inspection by the Union.
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3.
In preparing its policy on the environment, the Union shall take account of: available scientific and technical data, environmental conditions in the various regions of the Union, the potential benefits and costs of action or lack of action, the economic and social development of the Union as a whole and the balanced development of its regions.
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4.
Within their respective spheres of competence, the Union and the Member States shall cooperate with third countries and with the competent international organisations. The arrangements for Union cooperation may be the subject of agreements between the Union and the third parties concerned.
The previous subparagraph shall be without prejudice to Member States’ competence to negotiate in international bodies and to conclude international agreements.
Article 192
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1.
The European Parliament and the Council, acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure and after consulting the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, shall decide what action is to be taken by the Union in order to achieve the objectives referred to in Article 191.
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2.
By way of derogation from the decision-making procedure provided for in paragraph 1 and without prejudice to Article 114, the Council acting unanimously in accordance with a special legislative procedure and after consulting the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, shall adopt: (a) provisions primarily of a fiscal nature; (b) measures affecting: town and country planning, quantitative management of water resources or affecting, directly or indirectly, the availability of those resources, land use, with the exception of waste management; (c) measures significantly affecting a Member State’s choice between different energy sources and the general structure of its energy supply.
The Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, may make the ordinary legislative procedure applicable to the matters referred to in the first subparagraph.
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3.
General action programmes setting out priority objectives to be attained shall be adopted by the European Parliament and the Council, acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure and after consulting the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions.
The measures necessary for the implementation of these programmes shall be adopted under the terms of paragraph 1 or 2, as the case may be.
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4.
Without prejudice to certain measures adopted by the Union, the Member States shall finance and implement the environment policy.
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5.
Without prejudice to the principle that the polluter should pay, if a measure based on the provisions of paragraph 1 involves costs deemed disproportionate for the public authorities of a Member State, such measure shall lay down appropriate provisions in the form of: temporary derogations, and/or financial support from the Cohesion Fund set up pursuant to Article 177.
Article 193
The protective measures adopted pursuant to Article 192 shall not prevent any Member State from maintaining or introducing more stringent protective measures. Such measures must be compatible with the Treaties. They shall be notified to the Commission.
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1.
- 4.
The principle of subsidiarity is defined in Article 5 of the Treaty on European Union whereby the EU does not take action (except in the areas that fall within its exclusive competence), unless it is more effective than action taken at national, regional or local level. It is closely bound up with the principle of proportionality, which requires that any action by the EU should not go beyond what is necessary to achieve the objectives of the Treaties.
- 5.
We are referring to fiscal matters, town and country planning, land use, quantitative water resource management, choice of energy sources and structure of energy supply.
- 6.
A risk management tool that may be invoked when there is scientific uncertainty about a suspected risk to human health or to the environment emanating from a certain action or policy.
- 7.
Implemented by the Environmental Liability Directive, aims to prevent or otherwise remedy environmental damage to protected species or to natural habitats, water and soil.
- 8.
The Union shall have competence to carry out actions to support, coordinate or supplement the actions of the Member States. The areas of such action shall, at European level, be: (a) protection and improvement of human health; (b) industry; (c) culture; (d) tourism; (e) education, vocational training, youth and sport; (f) civil protection; and (g) administrative cooperation.
- 9.
GOAL 7—Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources; Target 7.B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss; Target 7.C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation; and Target 7.D: Achieve, by 2020, a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers.
- 10.
In terms of specific goals, the sustainable development agenda includes: ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all (Goal 6); ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all (Goal 7); ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns (Goal 12); take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (Goal 13); conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development (Goal 14); protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss (Goal 15).
- 11.
Please see http://ec.europa.eu/environment/action-programme/ and http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32013D1386&from=EN. The programme sets out nine priority objectives—the protection of nature; stronger ecological resilience; sustainable, resource-efficient and low-carbon growth; and the fight against environment-related threats to health—and stresses the need for better implementation of EU environment law, state-of-the-art science, investment, and integration of environmental aspects into other policies.
- 12.
Despite President George W. Bush intention in 2001 to withdraw the USA from the Protocol, the European Council formally agreed to the Kyoto Protocol on 25 April 2002, and the European Commission, represented by Margot Wallstrom, jointly presented their instruments of ratification to the United Nations on 31 May 2002.
- 13.
Please see http://ec.europa.eu/environment/sustainable-development/strategy/index_en.htm (last accessed on 14 September 2017)
- 14.
Article 37 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union states that: «A high level of environmental protection and the improvement of the quality of the environment must be integrated into the policies of the Union and ensured in accordance with the principle of sustainable development».
- 15.
20% cut in greenhouse gas emissions (from 1990 levels); 20% of EU energy from renewables. 20% improvement in energy efficiency.
- 16.
Please see https://www.oneplanetsummit.fr/en/ (last accessed in January 12, 2018).
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Xavier, A.I. (2019). The European Union as a Leading Environmental Player? A Critical Analysis on the Policy and Commitments Towards Global Development and Climate Change. In: Sequeira, T., Reis, L. (eds) Climate Change and Global Development. Contributions to Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02662-2_7
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