Abstract
The importance of space for ecology and conservation relies on the importance of connectivity. It is well known that connectivity can influence populations and communities through a variety of mechanisms, and promoting connectivity is frequently championed as a way to mitigate negative effects of environmental change. Here, we provide an overview on the concept of connectivity and its relevance for applied ecology. We first outline the various interpretations regarding connectivity and theoretical developments that emphasize its importance. We then describe three general approaches to quantifying connectivity, including the quantification of connectivity based on structural features (i.e., structural connectivity) of the landscape, the use of spatially explicit measures of connectivity based on the resistance of the landscape (e.g., potential functional connectivity), and the use of patch-based graphs (or network analysis) that quantify linkages between habitats. We illustrate how these approaches are implemented through two examples on endangered species. Our examples highlight different assumptions made in connectivity mapping, such as the use of least-cost paths and circuit theory, and how several patch-based graph metrics are related. We end by providing guidance for the advancement and applications of connectivity assessments.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Acevedo MA, Sefair JA, Smith JC, Reichert B, Fletcher RJ Jr (2015) Conservation under uncertainty: optimal network protection strategies for worst-case disturbance events. J Appl Ecol 52:1588–1597. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12532
Albert CH, Rayfield B, Dumitru M, Gonzalez A (2017) Applying network theory to prioritize multispecies habitat networks that are robust to climate and land-use change. Conserv Biol 31(6):1383–1396. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12943
Baguette M, Blanchet S, Legrand D, Stevens VM, Turlure C (2013) Individual dispersal, landscape connectivity and ecological networks. Biol Rev 88(2):310–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12000
Bélisle M (2005) Measuring landscape connectivity: the challenge of behavioral landscape ecology. Ecology 86(8):1988–1995
Bélisle M, Desrochers A (2002) Gap-crossing decisions by forest birds: an empirical basis for parameterizing spatially-explicit, individual-based models. Landsc Ecol 17(3):219–231
Bender DJ, Fahrig L (2005) Matrix structure obscures the relationship between interpatch movement and patch size and isolation. Ecology 86(4):1023–1033. https://doi.org/10.1890/03-0769
Blondel VD, Guillaume J-L, Lambiotte R, Lefebvre E (2008) Fast unfolding of communities in large networks. J Stat Mech Theory Exp. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-5468/2008/10/p10008
Bodin O, Norberg J (2007) A network approach for analyzing spatially structured populations in fragmented landscape. Landsc Ecol 22(1):31–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-006-9015-0
Bodin O, Saura S (2010) Ranking individual habitat patches as connectivity providers: integrating network analysis and patch removal experiments. Ecol Model 221(19):2393–2405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2010.06.017
Borgatti SP, Everett MG (2006) A graph-theoretic perspective on centrality. Soc Networks 28(4):466–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2005.11.005
Brownie C, Hines JE, Nichols JD, Pollock KH, Hestbeck JB (1993) Capture-recapture studies for multiple strata including non-markovian transitions. Biometrics 49(4):1173–1187
Bunn AG, Urban DL, Keitt TH (2000) Landscape connectivity: a conservation application of graph theory. J Environ Manag 59(4):265–278
Calabrese JM, Fagan WF (2004) A comparison-shopper’s guide to connectivity metrics. Front Ecol Environ 2(10):529–536
Carrara F, Altermatt F, Rodriguez-Iturbe I, Rinaldo A (2012) Dendritic connectivity controls biodiversity patterns in experimental metacommunities. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(15):5761–5766. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1119651109
Carroll C, McRae BH, Brookes A (2012) Use of linkage mapping and centrality analysis across habitat gradients to conserve connectivity of gray wolf populations in western North America. Conserv Biol 26(1):78–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01753.x
Charnov EL (1976) Optimal foraging: marginal value theorem. Theor Popul Biol 9(2):129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-5809(76)90040-x
Chisholm C, Lindo Z, Gonzalez A (2011) Metacommunity diversity depends on connectivity and patch arrangement in heterogeneous habitat networks. Ecography 34(3):415–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06588.x
Clark JS, Silman M, Kern R, Macklin E, HilleRisLambers J (1999) Seed dispersal near and far: patterns across temperate and tropical forests. Ecology 80(5):1475–1494
Cook WM, Lane KT, Foster BL, Holt RD (2002) Island theory, matrix effects and species richness patterns in habitat fragments. Ecol Lett 5(5):619–623. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2002.00366.x
Crooks KR, Sanjayan M (eds) (2006) Connectivity conservation. Cambridge University Press, New York
Csardi G, Nepusz T (2006) The igraph software package for complex network research. InterJournal Complex Syst 1695(5):1–9
Dale MRT, Fortin MJ (2010) From graphs to spatial graphs. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 41:21–38
Delignette-Muller ML, Dutang C (2015) fitdistrplus: an R package for fitting distributions. J Stat Softw 64(4):1–34
Dijkstra EW (1959) A note on two problems in connexion with graphs. Numer Math 1:269–271
Drake JC, Griffis-Kyle KL, McIntyre NE (2017) Graph theory as an invasive species management tool: case study in the Sonoran Desert. Landsc Ecol 32(8):1739–1752. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-017-0539-2
Elliot NB, Cushman SA, Macdonald DW, Loveridge AJ (2014) The devil is in the dispersers: predictions of landscape connectivity change with demography. J Appl Ecol 51(5):1169–1178. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12282
Etherington TR (2016) Least-cost modelling and landscape ecology: concepts, applications, and opportunities. Curr Landsc Ecol Rep 1:40–53
Etherington TR, Holland EP (2013) Least-cost path length versus accumulated-cost as connectivity measures. Landsc Ecol 28(7):1223–1229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-013-9880-2
Etten J, Hijmans RJ (2010) A geospatial modelling approach integrating archaeobotany and genetics to trace the origin and dispersal of domesticated plants. PLoS One 5:e12060. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0012060
Fahrig L (1998) When does fragmentation of breeding habitat affect population survival? Ecol Model 105(2–3):273–292
Fahrig L (2003) Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 34(1):487–515. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419
Fall A, Fortin MJ, Manseau M, O’Brien D (2007) Spatial graphs: principles and applications for habitat connectivity. Ecosystems 10(3):448–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-007-9038-7
Ferrari JR, Preisser EL, Fitzpatrick MC (2014) Modeling the spread of invasive species using dynamic network models. Biol Invasions 16(4):949–960. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0552-6
Fletcher RJ Jr (2006) Emergent properties of conspecific attraction in fragmented landscapes. Am Nat 168(2):207–219
Fletcher RJ, Reichert BE, Holmes K (2018) The negative effects of habitat fragmentation operate at the scale of dispersal. Ecology 99(10):2176–2186
Fletcher RJ Jr, Acevedo MA, Reichert BE, Pias KE, Kitchens WM (2011) Social network models predict movement and connectivity in ecological landscapes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108:19282–19287
Fletcher RJ Jr, Maxwell CW Jr, Andrews JE, Helmey-Hartman WL (2013a) Signal detection theory clarifies the concept of perceptual range and its relevance to landscape connectivity. Landsc Ecol 28(1):57–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-012-9812-6
Fletcher RJ Jr, Revell A, Reichert BE, Kitchens WM, Dixon JD, Austin JD (2013b) Network modularity reveals critical scales for connectivity in ecology and evolution. Nat Commun 4:2572. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3572
Fletcher RJ Jr, Acevedo MA, Robertson EP (2014) The matrix alters the role of path redundancy on patch colonization rates. Ecology 95(6):1444–1450
Fletcher RJ Jr, Burrell N, Reichert BE, Vasudev D (2016) Divergent perspectives on landscape connectivity reveal consistent effects from genes to communities. Curr Landsc Ecol Rep 1(2):67–79
Foltete JC, Vuidel G (2017) Using landscape graphs to delineate ecologically functional areas. Landsc Ecol 32(2):249–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-016-0445-z
Fortuna MA, Albaladejo RG, Fernandez L, Aparicio A, Bascompte J (2009) Networks of spatial genetic variation across species. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(45):19044–19049. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907704106
Galpern P, Manseau M, Fall A (2011) Patch-based graphs of landscape connectivity: a guide to construction, analysis and application for conservation. Biol Conserv 144(1):44–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2010.09.002
Gilbert-Norton L, Wilson R, Stevens JR, Beard KH (2010) A meta-analytic review of corridor effectiveness. Conserv Biol 24(3):660–668. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01450.x
Gilpin ME (1980) The role of stepping-stone islands. Theor Popul Biol 17(2):247–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-5809(80)90009-x
Graves T, Chandler RB, Royle JA, Beier P, Kendall KC (2014) Estimating landscape resistance to dispersal. Landsc Ecol 29(7):1201–1211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0056-5
Greenwood PJ (1980) Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in birds and mammals. Anim Behav 28(NOV):1140–1162. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-3472(80)80103-5
Greenwood PJ, Harvey PH (1982) The natal and breeding dispersal of birds. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 13:1–21. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.000245
Guillot G, Leblois R, Coulon A, Frantz AC (2009) Statistical methods in spatial genetics. Mol Ecol 18(23):4734–4756. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04410.x
Gustafson EJ, Parker GR (1994) Using an index of habitat patch proximity for landscape design. Landsc Urban Plan 29(2–3):117–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-2046(94)90022-1
Haase CG, Fletcher RJ, Slone DH, Reid JP, Butler SM (2017) Landscape complementation revealed through bipartite networks: an example with the Florida manatee. Landsc Ecol 32(10):1999–2014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-017-0560-5
Haddad NM, Bowne DR, Cunningham A, Danielson BJ, Levey DJ, Sargent S, Spira T (2003) Corridor use by diverse taxa. Ecology 84(3):609–615. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0609:cubdt]2.0.co;2
Haddad NM, Brudvig LA, Damschen EI, Evans DM, Johnson BL, Levey DJ, Orrock JL, Resasco J, Sullivan LL, Tewksbury JJ, Wagner SA, Weldon AJ (2014) Potential negative ecological effects of corridors. Conserv Biol 28(5):1178–1187. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12323
Haddad NM, Brudvig LA, Clobert J, Davies KF, Gonzalez A et al (2015) Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth. Sci Adv 1:e1500052
Handcock M, Hunter D, Butts C, Goodreau S, Morris M (2008) Statnet: software tools for the representation, visualization, analysis and simulation of network data. J Stat Softw 24(1):1–11
Hanks EM, Hooten MB (2013) Circuit theory and model-based inference for landscape connectivity. J Am Stat Assoc 108(501):22–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.2012.724647
Hanski I (1994) A practical model of metapopulation dynamics. J Anim Ecol 63(1):151–162
Hanski I (1998) Metapopulation dynamics. Nature 396(6706):41–49
Hanski I (1999) Metapopulation ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Hanski I, Ovaskainen O (2000) The metapopulation capacity of a fragmented landscape. Nature 404(6779):755–758
Harju SM, Olson CV, Dzialak MR, Mudd JP, Winstead JB (2013) A flexible approach for assessing functional landscape connectivity, with application to greater sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). PLoS One 8(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082271
Heino M, Kaitala V, Ranta E, Lindstrom J (1997) Synchronous dynamics and rates of extinction in spatially structured populations. Proc R Soc B 264(1381):481–486. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1997.0069
Heller NE, Zavaleta ES (2009) Biodiversity management in the face of climate change: a review of 22 years of recommendations. Biol Conserv 142(1):14–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.10.006
Hiebeler D (2000) Populations on fragmented landscapes with spatially structured heterogeneities: landscape generation and local dispersal. Ecology 81:1629–1641
Hock K, Mumby PJ (2015) Quantifying the reliability of dispersal paths in connectivity networks. J Royal Soc Int 12(105). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2015.0013
Hodgson JA, Moilanen A, Wintle BA, Thomas CD (2011) Habitat area, quality and connectivity: striking the balance for efficient conservation. J Appl Ecol 48(1):148–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01919.x
Holme P, Saramaki J (2012) Temporal networks. Phys Rep Rev Sect Phys Lett 519(3):97–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2012.03.001
Howell PE, Muths E, Hossack BR, Sigafus BH, Chandler RB (2018) Increasing connectivity between metapopulation ecology and landscape ecology. Ecology 99(5):1119–1128
Ims RA (1995) Movement patterns related to spatial structures. In: Hansson L, Fahrig L, Merriam G (eds) Mosaic landscapes and ecological processes. Chapman & Hall, London, UK, pp 85–109
Johst K, Drechsler M (2003) Are spatially correlated or uncorrelated disturbance regimes better for the survival of species? Oikos 103(3):449–456
Kallimanis AS, Kunin WE, Halley JM, Sgardelis SP (2005) Metapopulation extinction risk under spatially autocorrelated disturbance. Conserv Biol 19(2):534–546
Kautz R, Kawula R, Hoctor T, Comiskey J, Jansen D, Jennings D, Kasbohm J, Mazzotti F, McBride R, Richardson L, Root K (2006) How much is enough? Landscape-scale conservation for the Florida panther. Biol Conserv 130(1):118–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.12.007
Kimura M, Weiss GH (1964) Stepping stone model of population structure and decrease of genetic correlation with distance. Genetics 49(4):561
Klaus B, Strimmer K (2015) fdrtool: estimation of (local) false discovery rates and higher criticism. R package version 1.2.15
Kool JT, Moilanen A, Treml EA (2013) Population connectivity: recent advances and new perspectives. Landsc Ecol 28(2):165–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-012-9819-z
Larson A, Wake DB, Yanev KP (1984) Measuring gene flow among populations having high levels of genetic fragmentation. Genetics 106(2):293–308
Lawler JJ, Ruesch AS, Olden JD, McRae BH (2013) Projected climate-driven faunal movement routes. Ecol Lett 16(8):1014–1022. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12132
Leibold MA, Holyoak M, Mouquet N, Amarasekare P, Chase JM, Hoopes MF, Holt RD, Shurin JB, Law R, Tilman D, Loreau M, Gonzalez A (2004) The metacommunity concept: a framework for multi-scale community ecology. Ecol Lett 7(7):601–613. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00608.x
Lomolino MV (1990) The target area hypothesis: the influence of island area on immigration rates of non-volant mammals. Oikos 57(3):297–300. https://doi.org/10.2307/3565957
Lowe WH, Allendorf FW (2010) What can genetics tell us about population connectivity? Mol Ecol 19(15):3038–3051. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04688.x
MacArthur RH, Wilson EO (1967) The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Margosian ML, Garrett KA, Hutchinson JMS, With KA (2009) Connectivity of the American agricultural landscape: assessing the national risk of crop pest and disease spread. Bioscience 59(2):141–151. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2009.59.2.7
Marrotte RR, Bowman J (2017) The relationship between least-cost and resistance distance. PLoS One 12(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174212
Martensen AC, Saura S, Fortin MJ (2017) Spatio-temporal connectivity: assessing the amount of reachable habitat in dynamic landscapes. Methods Ecol Evol 8(10):1253–1264. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.12799
Matter SF (2001) Synchrony, extinction, and dynamics of spatially segregated, heterogeneous populations. Ecol Model 141(1–3):217–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3800(01)00275-7
McGarigal K, Cushman SA, Neel MC, Ene E (2002) FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for categorical maps. Computer software program produced by the authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Available at the following web site: http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html
McRae BH (2006) Isolation by resistance. Evolution 60(8):1551–1561
McRae BH, Dickson BG, Keitt TH, Shah VB (2008) Using circuit theory to model connectivity in ecology, evolution, and conservation. Ecology 89(10):2712–2724
McRae BH, Hall SA, Beier P, Theobald DM (2012) Where to restore ecological connectivity? Detecting barriers and quantifying restoration benefits. PLoS One 7(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052604
Mestre F, Canovas F, Pita R, Mira A, Beja P (2016) An R package for simulating metapopulation dynamics and range expansion under environmental change. Environ Model Softw 81:40–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.03.007
Minor ES, Gardner RH (2011) Landscape connectivity and seed dispersal characteristics inform the best management strategy for exotic plants. Ecol Appl 21:739–749. https://doi.org/10.1890/10-0321.1
Minor ES, Lookingbill TR (2010) A multiscale network analysis of protected-area connectivity for mammals in the United States. Conserv Biol 24(6):1549–1558. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01558.x
Mitchell MGE, Bennett EM, Gonzalez A (2013) Linking landscape connectivity and ecosystem service provision: current knowledge and research gaps. Ecosystems 16(5):894–908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-013-9647-2
Moilanen A, Hanski I (1998) Metapopulation dynamics: effects of habitat quality and landscape structure. Ecology 79(7):2503–2515
Moilanen A, Hanski I (2001) On the use of connectivity measures in spatial ecology. Oikos 95(1):147–151
Moilanen A, Nieminen M (2002) Simple connectivity measures in spatial ecology. Ecology 83(4):1131–1145
Nathan R, Getz WM, Revilla E, Holyoak M, Kadmon R, Saltz D, Smouse PE (2008) A movement ecology paradigm for unifying organismal movement research. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(49):19052–19059. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0800375105
Newman MEJ (2005) A measure of betweenness centrality based on random walks. Soc Networks 27(1):39–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2004.11.009
Ovaskainen O, Luoto M, Ikonen I, Rekola H, Meyke E, Kuussaari M (2008) An empirical test of a diffusion model: predicting clouded apollo movements in a novel environment. Am Nat 171(5):610–619. https://doi.org/10.1086/587070
Panzacchi M, Van Moorter B, Strand O, Saerens M, Ki IK, St Clair CC, Herfindal I, Boitani L (2016) Predicting the continuum between corridors and barriers to animal movements using Step Selection Functions and Randomized Shortest Paths. J Anim Ecol 85(1):32–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12386
Pascual-Hortal L, Saura S (2006) Comparison and development of new graph-based landscape connectivity indices: towards the priorization of habitat patches and corridors for conservation. Landsc Ecol 21(7):959–967. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-006-0013-z
Pascual-Hortal L, Saura S (2007) Impact of spatial scale on the identification of critical habitat patches for the maintenance of landscape connectivity. Landsc Urban Plan 83(2–3):176–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.04.003
Pe’er G, Kramer-Schadt S (2008) Incorporating the perceptual range of animals into connectivity models. Ecol Model 213(1):73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.11.020
Peterman WE (2018) ResistanceGA: an R package for the optimization of resistance surfaces using genetic algorithms. Methods Ecol Evol. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.12984
Pfluger FJ, Balkenhol N (2014) A plea for simultaneously considering matrix quality and local environmental conditions when analysing landscape impacts on effective dispersal. Mol Ecol 23(9):2146–2156. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12712
Pinto N, Keitt TH (2009) Beyond the least-cost path: evaluating corridor redundancy using a graph-theoretic approach. Landsc Ecol 24(2):253–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-008-9303-y
Pringle CM (2001) Hydrologic connectivity and the management of biological reserves: a global perspective. Ecol Appl 11(4):981–998. https://doi.org/10.2307/3061006
Proulx SR, Promislow DEL, Phillips PC (2005) Network thinking in ecology and evolution. Trends Ecol Evol 20(6):345–353
Pulliam HR (1988) Sources, sinks, and population regulation. Am Nat 132(5):652–661
Pulliam HR, Danielson BJ (1991) Sources, sinks, and habitat selection: a landscape perspective on population dynamics. Am Nat 137:S50–S66
Rayfield B, Fortin MJ, Fall A (2010) The sensitivity of least-cost habitat graphs to relative cost surface values. Landsc Ecol 25(4):519–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-009-9436-7
Rayfield B, Fortin M-J, Fall A (2011) Connectivity for conservation: a framework to classify network measures. Ecology 92(4):847–858. https://doi.org/10.1890/09-2190.1
Reeve JD, Cronin JT, Haynes KJ (2008) Diffusion models for animals in complex landscapes: incorporating heterogeneity among substrates, individuals and edge behaviours. J Anim Ecol 77(5):898–904. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01411.x
Reichert BE, Cattau CE, Fletcher RJ Jr, Sykes PW Jr, Rodgers JA Jr, Bennetts RE (2015) Snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis). In: Poole A (ed) The birds of North America online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca
Reichert BE, Fletcher RJ Jr, Cattau CE, Kitchens WM (2016) Consistent scaling of population structure despite intraspecific variation in movement and connectivity. J Anim Ecol 85:1563–1573
Richard Y, Armstrong DP (2010) Cost distance modelling of landscape connectivity and gap-crossing ability using radio-tracking data. J Appl Ecol 47(3):603–610. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01806.x
Robertson EP, Fletcher RJ Jr, Cattau CE, Udell BJ, Reichert BE, Austin JD, Valle D (2018) Isolating the roles of movement and reproduction on effective connectivity alters conservation priorities for an endangered bird. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115(34):8591–8596
Roy M, Pascual M, Levin SA (2004) Competitive coexistence in a dynamic landscape. Theor Popul Biol 66(4):341–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tpb.2004.06.012
Royle JA, Chandler RB, Gazenski KD, Graves TA (2013) Spatial capture-recapture models for jointly estimating population density and landscape connectivity. Ecology 94(2):287–294
Royle JA, Chandler RB, Sollmann R, Gardner B (2014) Spatial capture-recapture. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Royle JA, Fuller AK, Sutherland C (2018) Unifying population and landscape ecology with spatial capture-recapture. Ecography 41(3):444–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.03170
Rubio L, Bodin O, Brotons L, Saura S (2015) Connectivity conservation priorities for individual patches evaluated in the present landscape: how durable and effective are they in the long term? Ecography 38(8):782–791. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.00935
Rudnick DA, Ryan SJ, Beier P, Cushman SA, Dieffenbach F, Epps CW, Gerber LR, Hartter J, Jenness JS, Kintsch J, Mernlender AM, Perkl RM, Preziosi DV, Trombulak SC (2012) The role of landscape connectivity in planning and implementing conservation and restoration priorities. Issues Ecol 16:1–20
Runge JP, Runge MC, Nichols JD (2006) The role of local populations within a landscape context: defining and classifying sources and sinks. Am Nat 167(6):925–938. https://doi.org/10.1086/503531
Saerens M, Achbany Y, Fouss F, Yen L (2009) Randomized shortest-path problems: two related models. Neural Comput 21(8):2363–2404. https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.2009.11-07-643
Saura S, Pascual-Hortal L (2007) A new habitat availability index to integrate connectivity in landscape conservation planning: comparison with existing indices and application to a case study. Landsc Urban Plan 83(2–3):91–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.03.005
Saura S, Rubio L (2010) A common currency for the different ways in which patches and links can contribute to habitat availability and connectivity in the landscape. Ecography 33(3):523–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05760.x
Saura S, Bodin O, Fortin MJ (2014) Stepping stones are crucial for species’ long-distance dispersal and range expansion through habitat networks. J Appl Ecol 51(1):171–182. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12179
Sawyer SC, Epps CW, Brashares JS (2011) Placing linkages among fragmented habitats: do least-cost models reflect how animals use landscapes? J Appl Ecol 48(3):668–678. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01970.x
Schumaker NH, Brookes A, Dunk JR, Woodbridge B, Heinrichs JA, Lawler JJ, Carroll C, LaPlante D (2014) Mapping sources, sinks, and connectivity using a simulation model of northern spotted owls. Landsc Ecol 29(4):579–592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0004-4
Sexton JP, Hangartner SB, Hoffmann AA (2014) Genetic isolation by environment or distance: which pattern of gene flow is most common? Evolution 68(1):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.12258
Snijders TAB (2011) Statistical models for social networks. Annu Rev Sociol 37:131–153. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102709
Stevens VM, Baguette M (2008) Importance of habitat quality and landscape connectivity for the persistence of endangered natterjack toads. Conserv Biol 22(5):1194–1204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00990-x
Strogatz SH (2001) Exploring complex networks. Nature 410(6825):268–276
Sutherland C, Fuller AK, Royle JA (2015) Modelling non-Euclidean movement and landscape connectivity in highly structured ecological networks. Methods Ecol Evol 6(2):169–177. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210x.12316
Thomas CD, Kunin WE (1999) The spatial structure of populations. J Anim Ecol 68(4):647–657. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2656.1999.00330.x
Tischendorf L, Fahrig L (2000) How should we measure landscape connectivity? Landsc Ecol 15(7):633–641
Turlure C, Baguette M, Stevens VM, Maes D (2011) Species- and sex-specific adjustments of movement behavior to landscape heterogeneity in butterflies. Behav Ecol 22(5):967–975. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arr077
Tyler JA, Hargrove WW (1997) Predicting spatial distribution of foragers over large resource landscapes: a modeling analysis of the Ideal Free Distribution. Oikos 79(2):376–386
Urban D, Keitt T (2001) Landscape connectivity: a graph-theoretic perspective. Ecology 82(5):1205–1218
Urban DL, Minor ES, Treml EA, Schick RS (2009) Graph models of habitat mosaics. Ecol Lett 12(3):260–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01271.x
Valle D, Cvetojevic S, Robertson EP, Reichert BE, Hochmair HH, Fletcher RJ (2017) Individual movement strategies revealed through novel clustering of emergent movement patterns. Sci Rep 7. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep44052
van Etten J (2012) gdistance: distances and routes on geographical grids. R package version 1.1-4. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=gdistance
VanDerWal J, Shoo L, Januchowski S (2010) SDMTools: species distribution modelling tools: tools for processing data associated with species distribution modelling exercises. R package version 1.1
Vasudev D, Fletcher RJ Jr, Goswami VR, Krishnadas M (2015) From dispersal constraints to landscape connectivity: lessons from species distribution modeling. Ecography 38:967–978. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.01306
Verheyen K, Vellend M, Van Calster H, Peterken G, Hermy M (2004) Metapopulation dynamics in changing landscapes: a new spatially realistic model for forest plants. Ecology 85(12):3302–3312
von Luxburg U, Radl A, Hein M (2014) Hitting and commute times in large random neighborhood graphs. J Mach Learn Res 15:1751–1798
Vuilleumier S, Bolker BM, Leveque O (2010) Effects of colonization asymmetries on metapopulation persistence. Theor Popul Biol 78(3):225–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tpb.2010.06.007
Wang IJ, Bradburd GS (2014) Isolation by environment. Mol Ecol 23(23):5649–5662. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12938
Webster MS, Marra PP, Haig SM, Bensch S, Holmes RT (2002) Links between worlds: unraveling migratory connectivity. Trends Ecol Evol 17(2):76–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02380-1
Wickham H (2009) ggplot2: elegant graphics for data analysis. Springer-Verlag, New York
Winfree R, Dushoff J, Crone EE, Schultz CB, Budny RV, Williams NM, Kremen C (2005) Testing simple indices of habitat proximity. Am Nat 165(6):707–717
Wright S (1943) Isolation by distance. Genetics 28(2):114–138
Zeigler SL, Fagan WF (2014) Transient windows for connectivity in a changing world. Movement Ecol 2(1):1–1. https://doi.org/10.1186/2051-3933-2-1
Zeller KA, McGarigal K, Whiteley AR (2012) Estimating landscape resistance to movement: a review. Landsc Ecol 27(6):777–797. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-012-9737-0
Zollner PA, Lima SL (1999) Search strategies for landscape-level interpatch movements. Ecology 80(3):1019–1030
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Fletcher, R., Fortin, MJ. (2018). Connectivity. In: Spatial Ecology and Conservation Modeling. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01989-1_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01989-1_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-01988-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-01989-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)