Abstract
This study examines the development of Russian anti-extremist legislation with the purpose to identify the extent to which it correlates with the legal standards of the Council of Europe (CoE) on the right to freedom of expression. Apart from Russian national legislation, the article also considers judicial visions of extremism – for the first time in the field. The analysis goes beyond the issue of compliance and non-compliance and shows the fundamental differences of Russian and CoE legal visions of the issue. It is suggested that the differences have considerably increased over the last few years which is mainly explained by the shift of priorities of the Russian political establishment, rather than by pressing social needs. It is concluded that the Russian concept of extremism has the worrying potential for further expansion both in Russia and beyond it, including in what we call “alternative” international law.
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Notes
- 1.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, GA Res 217A (III), A/810 at 71 (1948).
- 2.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966, 999 UNTS 171.
- 3.
Convention for the Protection of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms 1950, ETS 5.
- 4.
European Commission for Democracy through Law, Opinion on Federal Law of the Russian Federation, “On Combating Extremist Activity,” adopted by the Venice Commission at its 91 Plenary Session, Venice, 15–16 June, No. 660/ 2011, CDL-AD(2012)016, Strasbourg, 20 June 2012; the UN Human Rights Committee’s Concluding Observations on the Seventh Periodic Report of the Russian Federation (CCPR/C/RUS/7), adopted on 28 April 2015.
- 5.
The Strategy of counteraction to extremism in the Russian Federation until 2025 (Approved by the President of the Russian Federation no. Pr-2753 as of 28 November 2014). http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_194160/7327668c04c0470317b26d354e36cb828a4af319, last accessed 2018/05/11.
- 6.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation (2017, June 30) Zayavlenie MID Rossii v svyazi s priostanovkoj uplaty vznosa Rossii v Sovet Evropy za 2017 god [Statement of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Concerning the Suspension of Payment of Russia's Contribution to the Council of Europe for 2017]. http://www.mid.ru/web/guest/foreign_policy/rso/coe/-/asset_publisher/uUbe64ZnDJso/content/id/2805051, last accessed 2018/05/11.
- 7.
Article 1 of Federal Statute of the Russian Federation of 25 July 2002, No. 114-FZ “On Counteracting Extremist Activity.” http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_37867/, last accessed 2018/05/10.
- 8.
The Strategy of counteraction to extremism in the Russian Federation until 2025 (Approved by the President of the Russian Federation no. Pr-2753 as of 28 November 2014). http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_194160/7327668c04c0470317b26d354e36cb828a4af319, last accessed 2018/05/11; Rossiiskaia gazeta (2009, May 19) Ukaz Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii ot 12 maia 2009 g. N 537 “O Strategii natsional’noi bezopasnosti Rossiiskoi Federatsii do 2020 goda” [Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 12 May 2009, N 537 “On the National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2020”]. https://rg.ru/2009/05/19/strategia-dok.html, last accessed 2018/05/12.
- 9.
See the official Web Portal on Legal Statistics of the Office of the General Prosecutor of the Russian Federation. http://crimestat.ru/offenses_chart, last accessed 2018/06/08.
- 10.
“Extremist materials” mean documents or information “calling for the perpetration of extremist acts or explaining or justifying the need to commit such activities; [such information] includes works by the leaders of the Nazi Party of Germany, the fascist party of Italy as well as publications explaining or justifying national or racial superiority, or justifying the practice of committing military or other crimes aimed at the full or partial elimination of any ethnic, social, racial, national or religious group.”
- 11.
ICCPR in Article 19 of Part 3 states: “The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; (b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.”
- 12.
See, for instance, the ECtHR judgments, Jersild v Denmark of 23 September 1994; Lehideux and Isorni v France of 23 September 1998.
- 13.
Article 17 of the ECHR stipulates that: “Nothing in this Convention may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein or at their limitation to a greater extent than is provided for in the Convention.”
- 14.
The European Commission for Democracy through Law (or the Venice Commission) is an advisory body of the CoE designed to improve operation of democratic institutions and the protection of human rights in the member-states.
- 15.
“RosPravosudiye” is an open-access Russian-language database of all judicial decisions of the Russian courts.
- 16.
See SOVA Center’s database. http://www.sova-center.ru/en/database/sentences/, last accessed 2018/05/10.
- 17.
See Roskomnadzor’s Public Reports. http://rkn.gov.ru/press/annual_reports/, last accessed 2018/05/25.
- 18.
Article 20 of the ICCPR states: “1. Any propaganda for war shall be prohibited by law.
2. Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.”
- 19.
Recommendation 97(20) of the CoE’s Committee of Ministers on Hate Speech, adopted on 30 October 1997, at the 607th meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies.
- 20.
See, for instance, the ECtHR judgments, Jersild v Denmark of 23 September 1994; Seurot v France of 18 May 2004; Norwood v United Kingdom of 16 November 2004.
- 21.
See, for example, the ECtHR judgment, Pavel Ivanov v Russia of 20 February 2007.
- 22.
See, for example, the ECtHR judgment on the case of Garaudy v France of 24 June 2003.
- 23.
See the ECtHR judgment on the case of H., W., P. and K. v. Austria of 12 October 1989.
- 24.
See, for instance, the ECtHR judgments, Castells v Spain of 23 April 1992; Janowski v Poland of 21 January 1999; Sürek v Turkey of 8 July 1999; Nilsen v Norway of 25 November 1999; Jerusalem v Austria of 27 February 2001; Karman v Russia of 14 December 2006; Lepojić v Serbia of 6 November 2007; Renaud v France of 25 February 2010; Axel Springer AG v. Germany (No. 2) of 10 July 2014; and Stankiewicz and others v Poland of 14 October 2014.
- 25.
See, for example, Kokkinakis v Greece of 25 May 1993.
- 26.
See, for instance, the ECtHR judgments, Kühnen v Federal Republic of Germany of 12 May 1988 and B. H., M. W., H. P. and G. K. v Austria of 12 October 1989.
- 27.
The register of NGOs banned on the grounds of the Federal Statute of the Russian Federation, “On Counteraction of Extremism Activity,” accessed from the official website of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation. http://minjust.ru/ru/nko/perechen_zapret, last accessed 2018/06/15; The register of NGOs whose activities have been suspended for committing extremist acts, accessed from the official web site of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation. http://minjust.ru/nko/perechen_priostanovleni, last accessed 2018/06/15.
- 28.
See, for example, the ECtHR judgments on the cases of Ochensberger v Austria of 2 September 1994; Honsik v Austria of 18 October 1995; D. I. v Germany of 26 June 1998; Lehideux and Isorni v France of 23 September 1998; Garaudy v France of 24 June 2003.
- 29.
Resolution of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation on the admissibility of the complaint by citizen N. A. Tolokonnikova, complaining about the violation of her constitutional rights by part 2 Article 213 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, Saint-Petersburg, 25 September 2014, No. 1873-O.
- 30.
See, for example, the ECtHR judgment, Otto-Preminger-Institut v Austria of 20 September 1994.
- 31.
See, the ECtHR judgments, Gündüz v Turkey Application of 4 December 2003; Erbakan v Turkey of 6 July 2006.
- 32.
See the ECtHR judgment, Vejdeland and Others v Sweden of 9 February 2012.
- 33.
Article 6.21 of the Russian Code of Administrative Offences.
- 34.
Resolution of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation on the case of the constitutionality test of Article 6.21 Part 1 of the Russian Code of Administrative Offences in response to complaints of citizens, N. A. Alexeev, Y. N. Yevtushenko and D. A. Isakov, Saint-Petersburg, 23 September 2014.
- 35.
Shanghai Convention “On Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism,” adopted on 15 June 2001 and entered into force on 29 March 2003. http://www.mid.ru/sanhajskaa-organizaciasotrudnicestva-sos-/-/asset_publisher/0vP3hQoCPRg5/content/id/579606, last accessed 2018/05/18.
- 36.
Shanghai Convention defines extremism as an act aimed at seizing or keeping power through the use of violence or changing violently the constitutional regime of a State, as well as a violent encroachment upon public security, including the organisation, for the above purposes, of illegal armed formations and participation in them, criminally prosecuted in conformity with the national laws of the Parties.
- 37.
Federal Statute of 6 March 2006, No. 35-FZ “On Counteracting Terrorism.”
- 38.
Article 3 of this statute defined terrorism as an “ideology of violence” or “practice of influence” on the decisions of state bodies or international organisations combined with intimidation of the population or other unlawful violent activities.
- 39.
CoE Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, No. 196, Adopted on May 16, 2005 in Warsaw. https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=090000168008371c, last accessed 2018/05/21.
- 40.
Decree of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of 9 February 2012, No. 1 “On Certain Issues of Judicial Practice on Terrorist Crimes.”
- 41.
Declaration of the Committee of Ministers of the CoE “On Freedom of Expression and Information in the Media in the Context of the Fight against Terrorism,” adopted on 2 March 2005 at the 917th meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies. https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=830679&Site=CM, last accessed 2018/05/12.
- 42.
The ECtHR judgments, Erdoğdu and İnce v. Turkey and Sürek and Özdemir v. Turkey.
- 43.
Resolution 1577 (2007), “Towards Decriminalization of Defamation,” adopted by the Assembly on 4 October 2007 (34th Sitting). Retrieved from http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=17588&lang=en, last accessed 2018/05/12.
- 44.
The ECtHR judgment, Ürper and Others v Turkey of 20 October 2009.
- 45.
Federal Statute of the Russian Federation of 27 July 2006, No. 149-FZ “On Information, Information Technologies and Protection of Information.”
- 46.
Retrieved from the official website of the Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology, and Mass Media (Roskmnadzor). https://rkn.gov.ru/docs/doc_1646.pdf, last accessed 2018/05/25.
- 47.
The ECtHR judgment, Ahmet Yildirim v Turkey of 18 December 2012.
- 48.
Federal Statute of the Russian Federation “On Amending Articles 10.4 and 15.3 of the Federal Statute of the Russian Federation ‘On Information, Information Technologies, and Protection of Information’ and Article 6 of the Statute of the Russian Federation ‘On Mass Media’,” No. 327-FZ of 25 November 2017.
- 49.
Resolution of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation on the admissibility of the complaint by citizen V. S. Kochemarov, complaining about the violation of his constitutional rights by Article 1 paragraphs 1 and 3 and Article 13 paragraph 3 of the Federal Statute of the Russian Federation “On Counteraction of Extremism Activity,” 2 July 2013.
- 50.
Decree of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of 28 June 2011, No. 11 “On Judicial Practice on Extremist Crimes.”
- 51.
Decree of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of 15 June 2010, No. 16 “On the Practice of Application of the Statute of the Russian Federation ‘On Mass Media’ by Courts.”
- 52.
Data about platforms for dissemination of information were removed from some rulings.
- 53.
Decision on the case of E. Karandaev, No. 1-8/14 of 14 January 2014, Magistrate Judge L. Fazlyeva of the Judicial District No. 5 in Kirovskiy District of the City of Ufa of the Republic of Bashkortostan.
- 54.
Decision on the case of A. Klinkov, No. 1-83/2013 of 4 April 2013, Central District Court of the City of Tyumen.
- 55.
Decision on the case of A. Volkov, No. 2-26/2017 of 23 October 2017, the Volgograd Regional Court.
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Sherstoboeva, E., Pavlenko, V. (2018). Freedom of Expression and Regulation of Extremism in Russia in the Context of the Council of Europe Standards. In: Bodrunova, S. (eds) Internet Science. INSCI 2018. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 11193. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01437-7_9
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