Abstract
In the United States, over 650,000 children are victims of child maltreatment each year, resulting in physical and nonphysical injuries, which can be both acute and long-lasting. In over 80% of these cases, the perpetrator is one or both of the child’s parents. Theories on the etiology of child abuse have evolved significantly over the past three decades. The causes of child abuse are now appreciated to be a complex interconnected web of influences rather than a single cause—a symptom of a larger disease or diseases of a family or community. The evolution of thought regarding the etiologies of child abuse has been paralleled by changes in theories of child abuse prevention strategies. Conventional intervention strategies in child abuse prevention have included primary, secondary, and tertiary programs. One of the most studied and effective prevention interventions is home visitation by a nurse or paraprofessional. Other child abuse prevention strategies include in-hospital education and community-based family centers. Due to the complexity of the problem of child abuse, it is not surprising that a universal solution remains elusive. Interventions can be either ameliorative (attending to the current problems) or transformative (addressing the underlying social risks). Future directions of child abuse prevention will involve coordinating successful interventions into a larger community context to achieve the correct intervention at the optimal dosage. This will require an increased dependence on data derived from methodologically strong clinical trials to ensure that interventions which are brought to scale are evidence based.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adverse Childhood Studies. (2009). http://www.acestudy.org/. Accessed 19 Jan 2009.
American Academy of Pediatrics. (1998). The role of home-visitation in improving health outcomes for children and families. Pediatrics, 101(3), 486–489.
American Academy of Pediatrics, Stirling, J., Jr., and the Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect and Section on Adoption and Foster Care, American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Amaya-Jackson, L., National Center for Child Traumatic Stress, Amaya-Jackson, L. (2008). Understanding the behavioral and emotional consequences of child abuse. Pediatrics, 122, 667–673.
Baqui, A. H., El-Arifeen, S., Darmstadt, G. L., Ahmed, S., Williams, E. K., Seraji, H. R., et al. (2008). Effect of community-based newborn care intervention package implemented through two service-delivery strategies in Sylhet district, Bangladesh: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. The Lancet, 371, 1936–1944.
Barlow, K. M., Thomson, E., Johnson, D., & Minns, R. A. (2005). Late neurologic and cognitive sequelae of inflicted traumatic brain injury in infancy. Pediatrics, 116, e174–e185.
Barnett, W. S. (1993). Economic evaluation of home visiting programs. The Future of Children, 3(3), 93–112.
Barr, R. G., Barr, M., Fujiwara, T., Conway, J., Catherine, N., & Brant, R. (2009a). Do educational materials change knowledge and behaviour about crying and shaken baby syndrome? A randomized controlled trial. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 180(7), 727–733.
Barr, R. G., Rivara, F. P., Barr, M., Cummings, P., Taylor, J., Lengua, L. J., & Meredith-Benitz, E. (2009b). Effectiveness of educational materials designed to change knowledge and behaviors regarding crying and shaken-baby syndrome in mothers of newborns: A randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics, 123(3), 972–980.
Belsky, J. (1980). Child maltreatment: An ecological integration. American Psychologist, 35, 320–335.
Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 413–434.
Bonomi, A. E., Anderson, M. L., Rivara, F. P., Cannon, E. A., Fishman, P., Carrell, D., et al. (2008). Health care utilization and costs associated with childhood abuse. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 23(3), 294–299.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
California Evidence-Based Clearing House for Child Welfare. (2008). http://www.cachildwelfareclearinghouse.org/program/92. Accessed Oct 2008.
California Evidence-Based Clearing House for Child Welfare. http://www.cachildwelfareclearinghouse.org/Program/8
Chaffin, M. (2004). Is it time to rethink healthy start/healthy families? Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 589–595.
Chaffin, M., & Friedrich, B. (2004). Evidence-based treatments in child abuse and neglect. Children and Youth Services Review, 26, 1097–1113.
Chicago Longitudinal Study. (2008). http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/cls/
Clarke, R. V. (Ed.). (1997). Situational crime Prevention: Successful case studies (2nd ed.). Guilderland: Harrow & Heston.
Clemson University. Strong Communities. (2008). http://www.clemson.edu/strongcommunities/about.html#one. Accessed Aug 2008.
Clinical Guidelines and Recommendations. (2018). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. http://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/clinicians-providers/guidelinesrecommendations/index.html.
Coles, L. (2008). Prevention of physical child abuse: Concept, evidence and practice. Community Practitioner, 81(6), 18–22.
Collison, D. (2007). Income inequality and child mortality in wealthy nations. Journal of Public Health, 29(2), 114–117.
Coulton, C. J. (1995). Community level factors and child maltreatment rates. Child Development, 66, 1262–1276.
Daro, D. (1993). Child maltreatment research: Implications for program design. In D. Cicchetti & S. Toth (Eds.), Child abuse, child development, and social policy (pp. 331–367). Norwood: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Daro, D., & Harding, K. (1999). Healthy families America: Using research to enhance practice. The Future of Children, 9(1), 152–176.
Daro, D., & McCurdy, K. (2007). Interventions to prevent child maltreatment. In L. Doll, S. Bonzo, D. Sleet, J. Mercy, & E. Hass (Eds.), Handbook of injury and violence prevention (pp. 137–156). New York: Springer.
DePanfilis, D., & Dubowitz, H. (2005). Family connections: A program for preventing child neglect. Child Maltreatment, 10(2), 108–123.
Dias, M. S., Backstrom, J., Falk, M., & Li, V. (2005). Preventing abusive head trauma among infants and young children: A hospital-based, parent education program. Pediatrics, 115(4), e470–e477.
Dias, M. S., Rottmund, C. M., Cappos, K. M., Reed, M. E., Wang, M., Stetter, C., et al. (2017). Association of a postnatal parent education program for abusive head trauma with subsequent pediatric abusive head trauma hospitalization rates. JAMA Pediatrics, 171(3), 223–229.
Dubowitz, H., Feigelman, S., Lane, W., & Kim, J. (2009). Pediatric primary care to help prevent child maltreatment: The safe environment for every kid (SEEK) model. Pediatrics, 123(3), 858–864. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-1376.
Duggan, A., Caldera, D., Rodriguez, K., Burrell, L., Rohde, C., & Crowne, S. S. (2007). Impact of a statewide home visiting program to prevent child abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 801–827.
Duggan, A., Fuddy, L., Burrell, L., Higman, S. M., McFarlane, E., Windham, A., et al. (2004). Randomized trial of a statewide home visiting program to prevent child abuse: Impact in preventing child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 597–622.
DuMont, K. (2008). Healthy families New York (HFNY) randomized trial: Effects on early child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 32, 295–315.
Eckenrode, J., Ganzel, B., Henderson, C. R., Smith, E., Olds, D. L., Powers, J., et al. (2000). Preventing child abuse and neglect with a program of nurse home visitation: The limiting effects of domestic violence. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 1385–1391.
Eckenrode, J., Smith, E. G., McCarthy, M. E., & Dineen, M. (2014). Income inequality and child maltreatment in the United States. Pediatrics, 133(3), 454–461.
Every Child Matters. (2003a). http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/aims/background/
Every Child Matters. (2003b). Chief Secretary to the treasury (p. 5). Norwich: Stationary Office. http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/_files/EBE7EEAC90382663E0D5BBF24C99A7AC.pdf
Fang, X., & Corso, P. (2007). Child maltreatment, youth violence, and intimate partner violence developmental relationships. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(4), 281–290.
Fang, X., Brown, D. S., Florence, C. S., & Mercy, J. A. (2012). The economic burden of child maltreatment in the United States and implications for prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(2), 156–165.
Felitti, V. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258.
Fergusson, D. M. (2005). Randomized trial of the early start program of home visitation. Pediatrics, 116, e803–e809.
Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & John Horwood, L. (2008). Exposure to childhood sexual and physical abuse and adjustment in early adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(6), 607–619.
Freisthler, B. (2007). Exploring the spatial dynamics of alcohol outlets and child protective services referrals, substantiations, and foster care entries. Child Maltreatment, 12(2), 114–124.
Freisthler, B., Gruenewald, P. J., Remer, L. G., Lery, B., & Needell, B. (2006). Understanding the ecology of child maltreatment: A review of the literature and direction for future research. Child Maltreatment, 11, 263–280.
Garbarino, J., & Crouter, A. (1978). Defining the community context for parent-child relations: The correlates of child maltreatment. Child Development, 49, 604–616.
Garbarino, J., & Kostelny, A. (1992). Child maltreatment as a community problem. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 455–464.
Garbarino, J., & Sherman, D. (1980). High-risk neighborhoods and high-risk families: The human ecology of child maltreatment. Child Development, 51, 188–198.
Geeraert, L., van de Noortgate, W., Grietans, H., & Onghenea, P. (2004). The effects of early prevention programs for families with young children at risk for physical child abuse and neglect: A meta-analysis. Child Maltreatment, 9(3), 277–291.
Gelles, R. J., & Perlman, S. (2012). Estimated annual cost of child abuse and neglect. Chicago: Prevent child abuse America. Available at: http://preventchildabuse.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/PCA_COM2012-1.pdf
Gershater-Molko, R., Lutzker, J., & Wesch, D. (2002). Using recidivism to evaluate project safecare: Teaching bonding, safety, and health care skills to parents. Child Maltreatment, 7, 277–285.
Gomby, D. (2007). The promise and limitations of home visiting: Implementing effective programs. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 793–799.
Gray, J., Cutler, C., Dean, J., & Kempe, C. H. (1977). Prediction and prevention of child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 1, 45–58.
Greeley, C. S. (2009). The future of child maltreatment prevention. Pediatrics, 123(3), 904–905.
Guterman, N. (1999). Enrollment strategies in early home visitation to prevent physical child abuse and neglect and the “universal versus targeted” debate: A meta-analysis of population-based and screening-based programs. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23(9), 863–890.
Healthy Families America. (2008). Prevention child abuse America. http://www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org/downloads/critical_elements_rationale.pdf
Healthy Families America. Prevention child abuse America. http://www.healthyfamiliesamerica.org/about_us/faq.shtml
Hippocrates. (1983). Hippocratic writings (G. E. R. Lloyd, Ed., J. Chadwick & W. T. Mann, Trans.). London: Penguin Books.
Issacs, J. (2008, September). Impacts of early childhood programs. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institute. http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2008/09_early_programs_isaacs.aspx
Kaplan, G. A., Pamuk, E. R., Lynch, J. W., Cohen, R. D., & Balfour, J. L. (1996). Inequality in income and mortality in the United States: Analysis of mortality and potential pathways. British Medical Journal, 312, 999–1003.
Klevens, J., Luo, F., Xu, L., Peterson, C., & Latzman, N. E. (2016). Paid family leave’s effect on hospital admissions for pediatric abusive head trauma. Injury Prevention, 22(6), 442–445.
Kempe, C. H. (1976). Approaches to preventing child abuse: The health visitors concept. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 130, 941–947.
Kempe, C. H. (1978). Child abuse: The pediatrician’s role in child advocacy and preventive pediatrics. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 132, 255–260.
Kennedy, B. P., Kawachi, I., Glass, R., & Prothrow-Stith, D. (1998). Income distribution, socioeconomic status, and self rated health in the United States: Multilevel analysis. British Medical Journal, 317, 917–921.
Kimbrough-Melton, R., & Campbell, D. (2008). Strong communities for children: A community-wide approach to prevention of child abuse and neglect. Family and Community Health, 31(2), 100–112.
Kitzman, H., Olds, D. L., Henderson, C. R., Hanks, C., Cole, R., Tatelbaum, R., et al. (1997). Effect of prenatal and infancy home visitation by nurses on pregnancy outcomes, childhood injuries, and repeated childbearing: A randomized controlled trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(8), 644–652.
Kitzman, H., Olds, D. L., Sidora, K., Henderson, C. R., Hanks, C., Cole, R., et al. (2000). Enduring effects of nurse home visitation on maternal life course: A 3-year follow-up of a randomized trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 283, 1983–1989.
Leventhal, J. (2005). Getting prevention right: Maintaining the status quo is not an option. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29, 209–213.
Lee, S., Aos, S., & Miller, M. (2008). Evidence-based programs to prevent children from entering and remaining in the child welfare system: Benefits and costs for Washington. Olympia: Washington State Institute for Public Policy, document no. 08-07-3901.
McLeod, K. (2000). Our sense of snow: The myth of John snow in medical geography. Social Science & Medicine, 50, 923–935.
Mair, J. S., & Mair, M. (2003). Violence prevention and control through environmental modifications. Annual Review of Public Health, 24, 20–225.
Makaroff, K., & Putnam, F. (2003). Outcomes of infants and children with inflicted traumatic brain injury. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 45, 497–502.
Mejdoubi, J., van den Heijkant, S. C. C. M., van Leerdam, F. J. M., Heymans, M. W., Crijnen, A., & Hirasing, R. A. (2015). The effect of VoorZorg, the Dutch NurseFamily partnership, on child maltreatment and development: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS One, 10(4), e0120182. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120182.
Melhuish, E., Belsy, J., Leyland, A. H., & Barnes, J. (2008). Effects of fully-established sure start local programmes on children and their families living in England: A quasi-experimental observational study. Lancet, 372(9652), 1641–1647.
Middlebrooks, J. S., & Audage, N. C. (2008). The effects of Childhood stress on health across the lifespan. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.
Muhajarine, N., Vu, L., & Labonte, R. (2006). Social contexts and children’s health outcomes: Researching across the boundaries. Critical Public Health, 169(3), 205–218.
National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome. http://www.dontshake.org
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2004). Children’s health, the National’s wealth: Assessing and improving child health. Committee on evaluation of Children’s health. Board on children, youth and families, division of behavioral and social sciences and education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Nelson, G., & Prilleltensky, I. (2005). Community psychology; in pursuit of liberation and well-being. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
O’Donnell, M., Scott, D., & Stanley, F. (2008). Child abuse and neglect—Is it time for a public health approach? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health Banner, 32(4), 325–330.
Ohmer, M. L., & Korr, W. S. (2006). The effectiveness of community practice interventions: A review of the literature. Research on Social Work Practice, 16(2), 132–145.
Olds, D. (2000). Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children’s criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(14), 1238–1244.
Olds, D. (2002). Prenatal and infancy home visiting by nurses: From randomized trials to community replication. Prevention Science, 3(3), 153–172.
Olds, D. L., Henderson, C. R., Chamberlin, R., & Tatelbaum, R. (1986). Preventing child abuse and neglect: A randomized trial of nurse home visitation. Pediatrics, 78(1), 65–78.
Olds, D., Eckenrode, J., & Henderson, C. (1997). Long-term effects of home visitation on maternal life course and child abuse and neglect. Fifteen-year follow-up of a randomized trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(8), 637–643.
Olds, D. L., Robinson, J., O’Brien, R., Luckey, D. W., Pettitt, L. M., Henderson, C. R., et al. (2004). Effects of home visits by paraprofessionals and by nurses: Age 4 follow-up results of a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 114(6), 1560–1568.
Pickett, K. E., & Wilkinson, R. G. (2007). Child wellbeing and income inequality in rich societies: Ecological cross sectional study. British Medical Journal, 335, 1080.
Polansky, N. A., Gaudin, J. M., Ammons, P. W., & Davis, K. B. (1985). The psychological ecology of the neglectful mother. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 265–275.
Prevent Child Abuse America. (2008, January). Accessed http://www.preventchildabuse.org/about_us/media_releases/national_press_release_final.pdf
Prilleltensky, I. (2005). Promoting well-being: Time for a paradigm shift in health and human services. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 33(Suppl. 66), 53–60.
Prilleltensky, I., & Prilleltensky, O. (2006). Promoting well-being: Linking personal, organizational, and community change. New York: Wiley.
Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: The US triple P population trial. Prevention Sciences, 109(1), 1–12.
Promising Practice Network on Children, Family and Communities. http://www.promisingpractices.net/programs_topic_list.asp?topicid=16
Reynolds, A. J., Temple, J. A., & Ou, S. R. (2003). School-based early intervention and child well-being in the Chicago longitudinal study. Child Welfare, 82(5), 633–656.
Runyan, D. K., Hennink-Kaminski, H. J., Zolotor, A. J., Barr, R. G., Murphy, R. A., Barr, M., et al. (2009). Designing and testing a shaken baby syndrome prevention program—The period of PURPLE crying: Keeping babies safe in North Carolina. Social Marketing Quarterly, 15(4), 2–24 https://www.dontshake.org/purple-crying.
Russell, B. (1928). Skeptical essays. Reprinted 1999. New York: Routledge.
Sanders, M., Cann, W., & Markie-Dadds, C. (2003). The triple P-positive parenting programme: A universal population-level approach to the prevention of child abuse. Child Abuse Reviews, 12, 155–171.
Selph, S. S., Bougatsos, C., Blazina, I., & Nelson, H. D. (2013). Behavioral interventions and counseling to prevent child abuse and neglect: A systematic review to update the US preventive services task force recommendation. Annals of Internal Medicine, 158(3), 179–190.
Showers, J. (1992). “Don’t shake the baby”: The effectiveness of a prevention program. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 11–18.
Sidebotham, P. (2001). An ecological approach to child abuse: A creative use of scientific models in research and practice. Child Abuse Review, 10, 97–112.
Starfield, B. (2001). Basic concepts in population health and health care. Journal of Epidemiol Community Health, 55, 452–454.
Stipanicic, A., Nolan, P., Fortin, G., Gobeil, M. F., et al. (2008). Comparative study of the cognitive sequelae of school-aged victims of shaken baby syndrome. Child Abuse and Neglect, 32(3), 415–428.
Sure Start. (2009). http://www.surestart.gov.uk
Tang, B., Jamieson, E., Boyle, M. H., Libby, A. M., Gafni, A., & MacMillan, H. L. (2006). The influence of child abuse on the pattern of expenditures in women’s adult health service utilization in Ontario, Canada. Social Science & Medicine, 63(7), 1711–1719.
The Happiest Baby. http://www.thehappiestbaby.com/
The University of Queensland. http://www.pfsc.uq.edu.au/publications/evidence_base.html
Tolstoy, L. (1899). War and peace, Part XIII. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co
US Department of Health and Human Services. (2008). US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) procedure manual, Section 4: Evidence Report Development, subsection 4.3: Assessing Evidence at the Individual Study Level. Accessed http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstf08/methods/procmanual4.htm
US Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for healthcare research and quality. US Preventive Services Task Force. http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstf/gradespre.htm#irec
US Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for healthcare research and quality. http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstfab.htm
US Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for healthcare research and quality. http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstf/grades.htm
US Department of Health and Human Services. US Preventive Services Task Force. http://ahrq.gov/clinic/pocketge08/gcp08app.htm. Accessed 29 Mar 2009.
US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau. (2018). Child maltreatment 2016. Available from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatment
US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families. (2008). Child maltreatment 2006. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
UNICEF. (2005). Child poverty in rich countries. Florence: UNICEF Innnocenti Research Centre.
Whitaker, D. J., Lutzker, J. R., & Shelley, G. A. (2005). Child maltreatment prevention priorities at the centers for disease control and prevention. Child Maltreatment, 10(3), 245–259.
Wikipedia. (2008). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Climbié
Wilson, J., & Kelling, G. (1982). Broken windows. Atlantic Monthly, 249, 29–38.
Ziersch, T. (2005). Neighbourhood life and social capital: The implications for health. Social Science & Medicine, 60(1), 71–86.
Zolotor, A., & Runyan, D. (2006). Social capital, family violence, and neglect. Pediatrics, 117(6), e1124–e1131.
Zolotor, A. J., Runyan, D. K., Shanahan, M., Durrance, C. P., Nocera, M., Sullivan, K., et al. (2015). Effectiveness of a statewide abusive head trauma prevention program in North Carolina. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(12), 1126–1131.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Greeley, C.S. (2019). Prevention of Child Physical Abuse. In: Giardino, A., Lyn, M., Giardino, E. (eds) A Practical Guide to the Evaluation of Child Physical Abuse and Neglect. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00635-8_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00635-8_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-00634-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-00635-8
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)