Abstract
The first systematic observations of conditions in the upper layers of the atmosphere had created doubts as to the exclusive validity of the thermal theory of cyclones. Following Hann’s demand, a number of meteorologists began to reexamine the daily synoptic charts in the light of upper air observations. One of the points on which meteorologists began to concentrate their efforts was the long-known surface temperature asymmetry observed in traveling cyclones and its possible implications for the theory of cyclones. As will be described in this chapter, the study of this phenomenon contributed much to a deeper understanding of the structure and formation of cyclones. In particular, these investigations provided part of the background for the development of the polar front theory of cyclones.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Köppen, “Ueber die mechanischen Ursachen der Ortsveränderung atmosphärischer Wirbel,” Wien, Met. Zeits., 15 (1880), p. 48.
Köppen, “Ueber den Einfluss der Temperaturverteilung auf die oberen Luftströmungen und die Fortpflanzung der barometrischen Minima,” Ann. Hydr., 10 (1882), p. 660.
Köppen, (1882), op. cit., 657–666; Möller, “Beziehungen zwischen dem Oberund Unterwinde einer Depression,” Ann. Hydr., 10 (1882), 212–226.
Köppen, “Veber die Gestalt der Isobaren in ihrer Abhängigkeit von Seehöhe and Temperatur-Verteilung,” Met. Zeits., 5 (1888), 470–481. Köppen introduced the term aerology in 1906 at the 5th conference of the International Commission on Scientific Aeronautics. During the 1880’s aerology remained essentially indirect.
V. Bjerknes et al., Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography, Part II (Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1911), 69–98. Bjerknes showed that it was more convenient to construct “topographies” of isobaric surfaces rather than charts of isobars at constant height levels.
Hann, “Einige Bemerkungen zur Lehre von den allgemeinen atmosphärischen Strömungen,” Wien., Met. Zeits., 14 (1879), 35–38.
Max Möller, “Beziehungen zwischen dem Ober- und Unterwind einer Depression und den aus diesen resultierenden Wolkenformen,” Ann. Hydr., 10 (1882), p. 221.
Max Möller, “Ueber Verluste an äussere Energie bei der Bewegung der Luft,” Met. Zeits., 4 (1887), p. 321.
Köppen, “Ueber den Zufluss and Abfluss der Luft in Cyklonen and Anticyklonen,” Met. Zeits., 15 (1898), p. 168.
A. Defant, Wetter and Wettervorhersage (Leipzig and Wien, Deuticke, 1918), 66–67.
H. H. Clayton, “Studies of cyclonic and anticyclonic phenomena with kites,” Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, 1 (1899), 2–19. Clayton was a pioneer in the exploration of the free atmosphere. He began his cloud studies in 1886, and organized the first use of kites lifting self-recording instruments at Blue Hill in 1894. See biographical note on Clayton in the Appendix.
V. Bjerknes et al., Physikalische Hydrodynamik (Berlin, Springer, 1933) Preface, p. vi and pp. 781–782; “In memory of V. Bjerknes,” op. cit., pp. 13–14. See biographical note on Sandström in the Appendix.
N. Ekholm, “Die Luftdruckschwankungen und deren Beziehung zu der Temperatur der oberen Luftschichten,” Met. Zeits., Hannband (1906), 228–242.
Bigelow, “Studies on the statics and kinematics of the atmosphere in the United States, II. Method of observing and discussing the motions of the atmosphere,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 30 (1902), p. 80.
For a comprehensive contemporary report of the results of international observations of clouds see Hildebrandsson, “The international observations of clouds,” Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., 30 (1904), 317–343.
Bigelow, “Studies on the…, III. The observed circulation of the atmosphere in the high and low areas,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 30 (1902), p. 121.
Bigelow, “Studies on the… IV. Review of Ferrel’s and Oberbeck’s theories of the local and the general circulations,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 30 (1902), p. 171. The term general cyclone is here defined as polar vortex.
Bigelow, “The structure of cyclones and anticyclones on the 3500 foot and 10,000 foot planes for the United States,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 31 (1903), 26–29.
Bigelow, “Studies on the thermodynamics of the atmosphere, I. Asymmetric cyclones and anticyclones in Europe and America,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 34 (1906), p. 14.
Bigelow, “The mechanism of countercurrents of different temperatures in cyclones and anticyclones,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 31 (1903), p. 72.
Bigelow, “Studies on the thermodynamics of the atmosphere, V. The horizontal convection in cyclones and anticyclones,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 34 (1906), p. 564.
Bigelow, “Studies on the thermodynamics of the atmosphere. I. Asymmetric cyclones and anticyclones in Europe and America,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 34 (1906), pp. 9 and 14. Italics are Bigelow’s. Ekholm (1906), pp. 239 and 240.
Shaw, Forecasting Weather (London, Constable and Co., 1911).
Ibid., p. 162. These results were confirmed by Hanzlik in “Die räumliche Verteilung der meteorologischen Elemente in den Zyklonen,” Denks. Ak. Wien, 88 (1913), 67–128.
Ekholm (1907), op. cit.; Hanzlik, “Die räumliche Verteilung der meteorologischen Elemente in den Antizyklonen,” Denks. Ak. Wien, 83 (1908), 163–256.
Ley, “The Eurydice squall,” Meteorological Magazine, 13 (1878), 32–39;
Köppen, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Böen and Gewitterstürme,” Ann. Hydr., 7 (1879), 324–335.
Durand-Gréville, Met. Zeits., 11 (1894), p. 313.
See Assmann, Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten, Vol. 1 (Braunschweig, Vieweg & Sohn, 1899), p. 107.
Margules (1903), p. 2; see further, Margules, “Vergleichung der Barogramme von einigen Orten rings um Wien,” Met. Zeits., 14 (1897), 241–253.
H. von Ficker, “Max Margules,” Das Wetter, 37 (1920), p. 163.
R. G. K. Lempfert, “The development and progress of the line-squall of February 8, 1906,” Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., 32 (1906), 259–280;
Lempfert and Corless, “Line-squalls and associated phenomena,” Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., 36 (1910), 135–170.
V. Bjerknes made this comment in “Wettervorhersage,” Met. Zeits., 36 (1919), p. 69.
V. Bjerknes, “Synoptical representation of atmospheric motions,” Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., 36 (1910), 267–286. Results presented in this talk form part of the textbook V. Bjerknes et al., Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography, op. cit.
Jacob Bjerknes, “Ueber die Fortbewegung der Konvergenz- und Divergenzlinien,” Met. Zeits., 34 (1917) 345–349. He found that the movement of lines of convergence is a function of the vorticity gradient due to the lines of flow on both sides of the line of convergence.
D. Brunt, Physical and Dynamical Meteorology (Cambridge, University Press, 1934), p. 285.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1979 American Meteorological Society
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kutzbach, G. (1979). Modifications of the Thermal Theory. In: The Thermal Theory of Cyclones. Meteorological Monographs. American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-940033-80-8_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-940033-80-8_6
Publisher Name: American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA
Online ISBN: 978-1-940033-80-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive