Abstract
This chapter documents scientific management, and exceptions to it, in the evolution of the established climate change regime. We focus on major science programs in the first section, and then turn to decisions on climate change policy and decision making in the second. We sketched the historical context of these initiatives in the scientific management tradition in Chapter 1. The details filled in here illustrate considerable investments of time, expertise, effort, and funds consistent with the ideal type of scientific management (Box 1.1) during the last two decades. These details should not obscure the disappointing outcomes documented in the previous chapter: All programs taken together, including those not selected here, have made little difference in advancing the common interest given the magnitude of the task ahead. In the third section we consider exceptions to scientific management, including case studies of adaptation to extreme weather events and mitigation of climate change on the ground. These exceptions suggest possibilities for opening the established regime to adaptive governance. They also represent bodies of experience available for adaptation to reduce near-term and longer-term losses from climate change.
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Notes
The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme: A Study of Global Change. The Initial Core Projects, Report No. 12 (Stockholm, Sweden: IGBP Secretariat, Box 50005, SE-104 05, June 1990), 1–3.
Ibid., 1–4.
Vannevar Bush’s report was submitted to President Truman in 1945 and republished as Vannevar Bush, Science, the Endless Frontier (Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, 1960). Bush wrote that our national health, prosperity, and security all depend on “essential, new knowledge [that] can be obtained only through basic scientific research.” (p. 5). “As long as [centers of basic research] are free to pursue the truth wherever it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge to those who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in industry, or elsewhere” (p. 12). For a critique of the linear model, see George E. Brown, Jr., “The Objectivity Crisis,” Amer. J. Physics 60 (September 1992): 779–781, at 780–781: “[T]he scientific community must seek to establish a new contract with policy makers, based not on demands for autonomy and ever-increasing budgets, but on the implementation of an explicit research agenda rooted in [social] goals” such as “zero population growth, less waste, less consumption of nonrenewable resources, less armed conflict, less dependence on material goods as a metric of wealth or success.” See also Donald E. Stokes, Pasteur’s Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1997), which advocates use-inspired basic research but accepts linearity.
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, A Study of Global Change: The Initial Core Projects, Report No. 12, 1–5. The world’s decision makers were not yet organized as the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Science Plan and Implementation Strategy, Report No. 55 (Stockholm, Sweden: IGBP Secretariat, Box 50005, SE-104 05, 2006), 1, edited by B. Young, K. Noone and W. Steffen.
K. Noone and W. Steffen Ibid., 4.
K. Noone and W. Steffen Ibid., 20.
See W. Steffen et al., Global Change and the Earth System: A Planet Under Pressure, 1st ed. (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag, 2004), 265, on the GAIM 23 Questions.
W. Steffen, personal communication, e-mail, 12 May 2007.
Steffen et al., Global Change and the Earth System, 32.
W. Steffen, personal communication, e-mail, 12 May 2007.
G. Sawhill, “The Growth of Climate Change Science: A Sociometric Study,” Climatic Change 48 (2001), 515–524.
Our Changing Planet: A U.S. Strategy for Global Change Research., A Report by the Committee on Earth Sciences, To accompany the U.S. President’s Fiscal Year 1990 Budget (January 1989); and Our Changing Planet: The FY 1990 Research Plan, The U.S. Global Change Research Program, A Report by the Committee on Earth Sciences ( July 1989). For background on the USGCRP, see Roger A. Pielke, Jr., “Policy History of the US Global Change Research Program: Part I. Administrative Development,” Global Environ. Change 10 (2000), 9–25, and “Policy History of the US Global Change Research Program: Part II. Legislative Process,” Global Environ. Change 10 (2000), 133–144.
Our Changing Planet: The FY 1990 Research Plan, 8. Emphasis in original.
Our Changing Planet: The FY 1990 Research Plan, 5.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid., xiii.
George E. Brown, Jr., “Global Change and the New Definition of Progress,” Geotimes (June 1992), 19–21. Rep. Brown’s critique is considered near the end of this section.
Our Changing Planet: The FY 1990 Research Plan, 7.
Ibid., 20. Emphasis in original.
Our Changing Planet: The U.S. Climate Change Science Program for Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005, A Report by the Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research, A Supplement to the President’s Budgets for Fiscal Years 2004 and 2005 (July 2004). The quotations in this paragraph can be found on pp. 10 and 6, respectively.
See ibid., 15, for a list of the SAPs, and Ch. 7, 119, for a discussion that includes the legislative authority.
Our Changing Planet: FY 2006, 135.
Ibid., 14.
Ibid., 116.
These quotations are from the Executive Summary of IPCC, Working Group III, chaired by Frederick M. Bernthal, Climate Change: The IPCC Response Strategies (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1991), xxv.
Ibid., xlviii.
Ibid., xxiii.
Emphasis in original. IPCC, Working Group I, Summary for Policymakers, in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), 10; Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H. L. Miller, Eds.
Dave Griggs, personal communication, 29 February 2008.
Ian Burton and Maarten van Aalst, Look Before You Leap: A Risk Management Approach for Incorporating Climate Change Adaptation in World Bank Operations (February 2004), 41.
IPCC, Working Group I, Summary for Policymakers, in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Basis, 18.
Ibid.
IPCC, Working Group II, Summary for Policymakers, in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK), 7–22, at 8; M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden and C. E. Hanson, Eds.
Ibid., 12.
Ibid., 17.
Ibid., 19.
Ibid.
Ibid., 20, adding in parentheses that “a list of these recommendations is given in the Technical Summary Section TS-6.”
IPCC, Working Group III, Summary for Policymakers, in Climate Change 2007: Mitigation (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), 19; B. Metz, O. R. Davidson, P. R. Bosch, R. Dave, L. A. Meyer, Eds.
Ibid., 21.
Ibid., 18.
Ibid., 22.
David W. Cash, “Viewpoint: Distributed Assessment Systems: An Emerging Paradigm of Research, Assessment and Decision-Making for Environmental Change,” Global Environ. Change 10 (2000), 241–244, at 241.
M. Granger Morgan, Milind Kandlikar, James Risbey, and Hadi Dowlatabadi, “Why Conventional Tools for Policy Analysis Are Often Inadequate for Problems of Global Change: An Editorial Essay,” Climatic Change 41 (1999), 271–281, at 273.
Thomas J. Wilbanks and Robert W. Kates, “Global Change in Local Places: How Scale Matters,” Climatic Change 43 (1999), 601–628.
Quoted in Andrew Revkin and Patrick Healy, “Global Coalition to Make Buildings Energy-Efficient,” New York Times (17 May 2007), A18.
Naomi Oreskes, Kristin Shrader-Frechette, and Kenneth Berlitz, “Verification, Validation, and Confirmation of Numerical Models in the Earth Sciences, Science 263 (1994), 641–646, at 641.
Steve Bankes, “Exploratory Modeling for Policy Analysis,” Operations Research 41 (1993), 435–449, at 435, 437.
IPCC, Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I, Ch. 9, 697.
Bankes, “Exploratory Modeling for Policy Analysis,” 437. For more on this, including vivid examples, see Orrin H. Pilkey and Linda Pilkey-Jarvis, Useless Arithmetic: Why Environmental Scientists Can’t Predict the Future (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2007).
Victor R. Baker, “Flood Hazard Science, Policy, and Values: A Pragmatist Stance,” Technol.Soc. 29 (2007), 161–168, at 167.
Herman A. Karl, Lawrence E. Susskind, and Katherine H. Wallace, “A Dialogue, Not a Diatribe,” Environment 49 (January/February 2007), 20–34, at 22.
Scientific uncertainty remains a priority concern of the IPCC: “Although the science to provide policymakers with information about climate change impacts and adaptation potential has improved since the Third Assessment, it still leaves many important questions to be answered. The chapters of the Working Group II Fourth Assessment include a number of judgments about priorities for further observation and research, and this advice should be considered seriously (a list of these recommendations is given in the Technical Summary Section TS-6).” IPCC, Working Group II, Summary for Policymakers, in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, 20.
On the distinction between ordinary and constitutive decisions, see Harold D. Lasswell, A Pre-View of Policy Decisions (New York, NY: Elsevier, 1971), Chs. 5 and 6, which include goals and criteria for the appraisal of ordinary and constitutive decision processes from a common interest standpoint. For more on the constitutive decision process, see Myres S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell, and W. Michael Reisman, “The World Constitutive Process of Authoritative Decision,” in International Law Essays (Mineola, NY: Foundation Press, 1981), 191–286.
Climate Change: The IPCC Response Strategies, lv.
Ibid., lvi.
Ibid., li.
Bert Bolin, “The Kyoto Negotiations on Climate Change: A Science Perspective,” Science 279 (16 January 1998), 330–331, at 331. DOI: 10.1126/science.279.5349.330.
From the UNFCCCs background information on the Kyoto Protocol, 3, accessed 5 September 2007 at http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/background/items/3145. php. For Decision 24/CP.7 on “Procedures and mechanisms relating to compliance under the Kyoto Protocol, see the Report of the Conference of the Parties on Its Seventh Session, Held at Marrakesh from 29 October to 10 November 2001, Addendum, Part Two: Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties, 64–77.
According to an analysis of preliminary data, “many parties to the Protocol may find that achieving their emissions reductions obligations will prove to be difficult or impossible within the commitment period.” Susan R. Fletcher and Larry Parker, Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol and International Actions, CRS Report for Congress RL 33836 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Updated 8 June 2007), 7.
On accounting tricks and other limitations of the Kyoto Protocol, see David G. Victor, The Collapse of the Kyoto Protocol and the Struggle to Slow Global Warming (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), including the Afterword. Additional critiques of the Kyoto Protocol include Gwyn Prins and Steve Rayner, “Commentary: Time to Ditch Kyoto,” Nature 449 (25 October 2007), 973–975, and Bjorn Lomborg, Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist’s Guide to Global Warming (New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007).
Daniel Bodansky, “The Emerging Climate Change Regime,” Annu.Rev. Energy Environ. 20 (1995), 425–461, at 425, 438, and 429, respectively.
Sonja A. Boehmer-Christiansen, “Global Climate Protection Policy: The Limits of Scientific Advice,” Global Environ. Change 4 (1994), Part II (September), 185–200, at 192.
Sheldon Ungar, “Social Scares and Global Warming: Beyond the Rio Convention,” Soc. Natl Res. 8 (1995), 443–456, at 448.
Daniel Bodansky, “The Emerging Climate Change Regime,” 426.
M. Granger Morgan, “Managing Carbon from the Bottom Up,” Science 289 (29 September 2000), 2285. Note that “bottom up” here refers not to people on the ground in local communities but to initiatives by individual countries.
Quoted in Thomas L. Friedman, “Live Bad, Go Green,” New York Times (8 July 2007), WK12.
Quoted in John H. Cushman, Jr., “Why the U.S. Fell Short of Ambitious Goals for Reducing Greenhouse Gases,” New York Times (20 October 1997), A15.
Compare Harold D. Lasswell, Psychopathology and Politics (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1930 and 1977), 189: “The competition among symbols to serve as foci of concentration for the aroused emotions of the community leads to the survival of a small number of master symbols…. Symbolization thus necessitates dichotomization.”
For overviews, see Climate Action Network Europe, Emissions Trading in the EU, accessed 19 October 2007 at http://www.climnet.org/EUenergy/ET.html; and Larry Parker, Climate Change: The European Union’s Emissions Trading System (EU-ETS), CRS Report for Congress RL-33581 (Washington, D.C..: Congressional Research Service, 31 July 2006).
Climate Action Network Europe, Emissions Trading in the EU, 2.
Climate Action Network Europe, Emissions Trading in the EU, 3.
Ibid.
EU Emissions Trading Scheme Delivers First Verified Emissions Data for Installations (Brussels, 15 May 2006), accessed 19 October 2007 at http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/climat/pdf/citl_pr.pdf. The first page notes that no information had been received from Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, and Poland because “their emission allowance registries are not yet operational.”
Parker, Climate Change: The European Union’s Emissions Trading System (EUETS), 5, 9. The overallocation would be larger if the annual average of 73.4 million allowances held in reserve for new installations or auctioning were included.
EU Emissions Trading Scheme Delivers First Verified Emissions Data for Installations, 1.
Aggregate and national figures for each year are reported by the European Commission in Emissions Trading: 2007 Verified Emissions from EU ETC Businesses (IP/08/787, Brusssels, 23 May 2008), accessed at http://europa.eu/rapid/ pressReleasesAction.
Climate Action Network Europe, National Allocation Plans 2005–7: Do They Deliver? Key Lessons to Member States for 2008–12 (April 2006), 5–6. Accessed 5 November 2007 at http://www.climnet.org/euenergy/ET/0506_NAP_report.pdf.
Quoted in Parker, Climate Change: The European Union’s Emissions Trading System (EU-ETS), 8.
PricewaterhouseCoopers, Building Trust in Emissions Reporting: Global Trends in Emissions Trading Schemes (February 2007), 9, 24. PricewaterhouseCoopers is a global network of legally independent consulting firms. The authors are Jeroen Kruijd, Arnoud Walrecht, Joris Laseur, Hans Schoolderman, and Richard Gledhill. See also the harmonization issue in Parker, Climate Change: The European Union’s Emissions Trading System (EU-ETS), 16–18.
Stephen Castle and James Kanter, “EU Looks at Big Changes in Emissions Trading,” International Herald Tribune (6 June 2007), 5.
Leila Abboud, “Europe Struggles to Meet Carbon Commitments,” Globe and Mail (Canada) (3 April 2008), B11; Mark Milner, “Carbon Prices Rise Amid Tighter Rules,” The Guardian (London) (3 April 2008), 24; Danny Fortson, “Industrial CO2 Emissions to Fall as Tougher EU Curbs Come In,” The Independent (London) (3 April 2008), 44.
European Commission, Emissions Trading: 2007 Verified Emissions from EU ETC Businesses.
A. Danny Ellerman and Paul L. Jaskow, The European Union’s Emissions Trading Systems in Perspective (Prepared for the Pew Center on Global Climate Change, May 2008), iii.
Elizabeth Rosenthal, “Europeans Switching Back to Dirty Fuel; Ecologists Alarmed by Return to Coal,” International Herald Tribune (23 April 2008), 1.
Parker, Climate Change: The European Union’s Emissions Trading System (EU-ETS), 21.
-, Ibid., 17.
For additional details on CCAP, see Ronald D. Brunner and Roberta Klein, “Harvesting Experience: A Reappraisal of the U.S. Climate Change Action Plan,” Policy Sciences 32 (1999), 133–161.
Government Accountability Office, Climate Change: EPA and DOE Should Do More to Encourage Progress Under Two Voluntary Programs, GAO-06-97 (April 2006), Appendix I. According to the administration at http://www.climatevision. gov/right_more.html, accessed 1 September 2006, “The Climate VISION program is a public-private partnership program established in February 2003 to support President Bush’s goal [announced in February 2002] of reducing the greenhouse gas emissions intensity of the U.S. Economy by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012.”
Helen Dewar, “Senate Advises Against Emission Treaty that Lets Developing Countries Pollute,” Washington Post (26 July 1997), All; and Helen Dewar and Kevin Sullivan, “Senate Republicans Call Kyoto Pact Dead; Some Democrats Suggest Clinton Delay Submission to Ratification Vote,” Washington Post (11 December 1997), A37.
John R. Justus and Susan R. Fletcher, Global Climate Change (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Updated 12 May 2006), 6–7.
Susan R. Fletcher and Larry Parker, Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol and International Actions, 12.
-, Ibid.
Thomas L. Friedman, “The Capitol Energy Crisis,” New York Times (24 June 2007), 4:14.
Paul Singer, “Uneasy Money,” National Journal (12 August 2006), 22–30, at 22–23.
Jane A. Leggett, Climate Change: Science and Policy Implications, CRS Report for Congress RL33849 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Updated 2 May 2007), 1.
George H. W. Bush, “Remarks at the Opening Session of the White House Conference on Science and Economics Research Related to Global Change,” 17 April 1990, Public Papers of the Presidents (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1991), 585–586, at 585.
Leggett, Climate Change: Science and Policy Implications, 3.
Both quotations are from George E. Brown, Jr., “Global Change and the New Definition of Progress,” Geotimes (June 1992): 19–21, at 21. This paragraph is adapted from Ronald D. Brunner, “A Paradigm for Practice,” Policy Sciences 39:(2006), 135–167.
Brown, Jr., “The Objectivity Crisis,” 781.
Office of Technology Assessment, Preparing for an Uncertain Climate—Volume I, OTA-O567 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, October 1993), 144.
Harold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan, Power and Society (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press), 133. On the multiple bases of power as control, see ibid., 85: “[I]t is of crucial importance to recognize that power may rest on various bases, differing not only from culture to culture, but also within a culture from one power structure to another.” Compare Herbert A. Simon, The Science of the Artificial 3rd ed. (Cambridge, MA: MI T Press, 1996), 185: “the real flesh-and-blood organization has many interpart relations other than the lines of formal authority.”
Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments Program, Alaska Exploratory Workshop, held in Anchorage, AK, February 18–19, 2004, 6. This summary of the workshop was prepared by Susanne C. Moser. RISA’s address on the Web is www.climate.noaa.gov/cpo_pa/risa/.
New Directions for Climate Research and Technology Initiatives, Hearings before the Committee on Science, House of Representatives, 107th Congress, 2nd Session, 17 April 2002 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 2002), 5. The hearing charter prefaced the comment on RISA with the observation that USGCRP “is designed by scientists to address the big scientific questions related to global change. It has never considered the needs of users on the ground who may have to make decisions about environmental resources that are affected by weather and climate.”
Ibid., 18–19.
A. K. Snover, L. Whitely Binder, J. Lopez, E. Willmott, J. Kay, D. Howell, and J. Simmonds, Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, Regional, and State Governments (Oakland, CA: ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability, 2007), 1. The Guidebook can be accessed at www.iclei.org/index.php?id=7066.
-, Ibid., 7.
National Assessment Synthesis Team, Climate Change Impacts on the United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program, November 2000), 8.
-, Ibid, 120. This conclusion was also emphasized in a box in the opening summary, p. 9.
-, Ibid., 122.
Paul D. Thacker, “Blowing the Whistle on Climate Change: Interview with Rick Piltz,” Environmental Science & Technology Online (22 June 2005) at http://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag.
W. N. Adger et al., “Assessment of Adaptation Practices, Options, Constraints and Capacity,” in IPCC, Working Group II, Summary for Policymakers, in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Ch. 17, 71–743. The following quotations can be found on pages 728, 728, 729, 729, 734, 735 and 735, respectively.
-, Ibid., 723.
-, Ibid., 722.
Quoted in a recent documentary, “Meltdown in Nepal,” and reported in “Climate change: The long-range forecast” by David Cyranoski, News Feature, Nature 438, 275–276 (17 November 2005), DOI: 10.1038/438275a.
Lawrence C. Hamilton and Richard Haerdrich, “Ecological and Population Changes in Fishing Communities of the North Atlantic Arc,” Polar Res. 18 (1999), 383–388; Lawrence Hamilton, Per Lyster, Oddmund Otterstad, “Social Change, Ecology and Climate in 20th Century Greenland,” Climatic Change 47 (2000), 193–211; and Lawrence C. Hamilton, Benjamin C. Brown, and Rasmus Ole Rasmusssen, “West Greenland’s Cod-to-Shrimp Transition: Local Dimensions of Climate Change,” Arctic 56 (September 2003), 271–282.
Hamilton, Brown, and Rasmussen, “West Greenland’s Cod-to-Shrimp Transition,” 276.
Rasmussen, “West Greenland’s Cod-to-Shrimp Transition,” Ibid., 277.
Rasmussen, “West Greenland’s Cod-to-Shrimp Transition,”, 277 Ibid.
Rasmussen, “West Greenland’s Cod-to-Shrimp Transition,” Ibid., 278. In this Sisimiut was helped by the Home Rule government, which gained limited sovereignty from Denmark in 1979. It required that 25% of the shrimp catch be processed at onshore plants to maintain employment, rather than packed and frozen whole on factory ships at sea.
Michael Glantz, Ed., Once Burned, Twice Shy? Lessons Learned from the 1997–98 El Niño (New York, NY: United Nations University, 2001), 4–5.
For example, James Ford et al., “Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change in the Arctic: The Case of Nunavut, Canada, Arctic 60 (June 2007), 150–166. The Nunavut case is complementary to the Barrow case described in the next chapter: While it focused on reducing the vulnerability of the “traditional resource use sector” to climate change, the Barrow case focused on reducing the vulnerability of residents and modern infrastructure to big storms.
Michael P. Hamnett, Cheryl L. Anderson, and Charles P. Guard, The Pacific ENSO Applications Center: Lessons Learned and Future Directions (24 March 2000). We are grateful to Mike Hamnett for introducing us to PEAC, and to Eileen Shea and Cheryl Anderson for comments and corrections on an earlier version of our account.
-, Ibid., 1.
-, Ibid., 1–2. This documentation focuses on rainfall forecasts and drought impacts and responses but also considers wildfires, agriculture, health, ecological, and fisheries impacts and responses.
-, Ibid., 2.
-, Ibid., 3.
-, Ibid., 4–5.
-, Ibid., 4.
-, Ibid., 4.
Mike Hamnett, The Pacific ENSO Applications Center and the 1997–1998 El Niño, 1, accessed 4 March 2007 at http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/MET/Enso/ reports/97ENSO.html.
Hamnett, Anderson, and Guard, The Pacific ENSO Applications Center, 5.
-, Ibid., 7.
-, Ibid., 5.
-, Ibid., 6.
In a comprehensive study, Matthew Collins and his collaborators have found that “[t]he potential for the mean climate of the tropical Pacific to shift to more El Niño-like conditions as a result of human induced climate change is subject to a considerable degree of uncertainty. The complexity of the feedback processes, the wide range of responses of different atmosphere-ocean global circulation models … and difficulties with model simulation of present day El Niño southern oscillation … all complicate the picture…. The most likely scenario … is for no trend towards either mean El Niño-like or La Niña-like conditions.” Collins and the CMIP Modelling Groups, “El Niño-or La Niña-like Climate Change?” Climate Dyn. 24 (2005), 89–104, at 89.
T. H. F. Wong, “Water Sensitive Urban Design—The Journey thus Far,” Australian J. Water Resour., Special Issue on Water Sensitive Urban Design, 10 (2006), 213–222.
Rebekah Brown and Jodie Clarke, Transition to Water Sensitive Urban Design: The Story of Melbourne Australia (Report 07/1, Facility for Advancing Water Biofiltration, Monash University, June 2007; ISBN 978-0-9803428-0-2), 23. According to the Public Record Office of Victoria, http://www.access.prov.vic.gov.au/public/, accessed 31 July 2008, Melbourne Water was formed by the merger of the public utility Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works (MMBW) and a number of smaller urban water authorities in 1991–1992. The MMBW was formed in 1891 to manage Melbourne’s piped water supply and reservoirs. After the Victorian Liberal Party led by Jeff Kennett gained office in 1992, disaggregation was part of a process of privatisation of state-owned services, including gas, electricitiy, and water, which continued until the Liberal Party left office in 1999.
-, Ibid., 43.
The impacts of the drought are summarized from M. Horridge, J. Madden, and G. Wittwer, “The Impact of the 2002–2003 Drought on Australia,” J. Policy Model. 27(2005); World Economy & European Integration, 285–308, DOI: 10.1016/j.jpolmod.2005.01.008; and from the 2002 special drought issue of the Australian Crop Report, available from www.abare.gov.au, accessed 11 March 2008.
Water supply is not the only factor in the problem of urban water management in Melbourne. Changes in the patterns of water demand contribute to making the problem more urgent. Bob Birrell and colleagues have suggested that domestic water consumption is likely to increase due to a combination of population growth, urban consolidation policies, and the decreasing number of persons per household. Population growth is the primary driver, but as average household size decreases, the per capita water use increases. B. Birrell, V. Rapson, and T.F. Smith, Impacts of Demographic Change and Urban Consolidation on Domestic Water Use (Occasional Paper No. 15, 2005, Water Services Associated of Australia, 469 Latrobe Street Melbourne 3000 VIC Australia).
Department of Sustainability and Environment, Stormwater and Urban Water Conservation Fund, http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/wcmn202.nsf/LinkView/ 92C773A9748FD0BECA256FE1001CBE34CFB32E3D98756185CA256FDD00136E16, accessed 15 November 2007.
Australian Science Media Centre, Rapid Roundup, Tuesday, 19 June 2007 (Updated Tuesday, 26 June 2007), accessed at http://www.aussmc.org.au/Desalination_plant_for_Victoria.php.
Garry Charnock and Roy Alexander, A Practical Toolkit for Communities Aiming for Carbon Neutrality, 6, accessed 20 August 2008 at http://rccn.communitycarbon.net/2007/08/31/our-footprint-our-journey-the-ashton-hayes-Toolkit/.
Charnock and Alexander, A Practical Toolkit for Communities Aiming for Carbon Neutrality, 7.
-, Ibid., 8.
Elizabeth Kolbert, “The Island in the Wind,” The New Yorker (7 and 14 July 2008), 68–77, at 68. For more details and a fuller analysis, see Samsø, A Renewable Energy Island: 10 Years of Development and Evaluation (Samsø: PlanEnergi and Samsø Energy Academy, 2007), accessed at www.energiakademiet.dk. This document tracks Samsø’s transition to a renewable energy island through narrative histories of multiple initiatives and energy statistics for the years 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003 (estimates), and 2005. This account is supplemented by SørenHermansen’s presentation at the University of Colorado, Boulder, on 3 November 2008; we are grateful to him for correcting an earlier version. See also Warren Hoge, “Samsø Journal: In This Energy Project, No Tilting at Windmills,” New York Times (9 October 1999), and Robin McKie, “Isle of Plenty,” The Observer (London) Magazine (21 September 2008), 30.
Kolbert, “The Island in the Wind,”, 70–71.
Quoted in ibid., 71.
Ibid., 71.
Hoge, “Samsø Journal: In This Energy Project, No Tilting at Windmills,” New York Times (9 October 1999).
Kolbert, “The Island in the Wind,” 71.
Kolbert, “The Island in the Wind,” 71.
Kolbert, “The Island in the Wind,”, 72.
Ibid., 73.
Kolbert, “The Island in the Wind,”, 73.
Ibid., 70. For more on Samsø as a model, see McKie, “Isle of Plenty.”
W. Henry Lambright, Stanley A. Chagnon, and L. D. Danny Harvey, “Urban Reactions to the Global Warming Issue: Agenda Setting in Toronto and Chicago,” Climatic Change 34 (1996), 463–478, at 469. See also L. D. Danny Harvey, “Tackling Urban CO2 Emissions in Toronto,” Environment 35 (September 1993), 16–20, 38–43.
Peter Gorrie, “Blueprint Green; David Miller Says This Will Be North America’s Greenest City,” Toronto Star (17 February 2007), A1.
John Barber, “A Small City We May Be, But Our Impact Is Big,” Globe and Mail (14 May 2007), A11.
ICLEI International Progress Report: Cities for Climate Protection, 15, assessed 15 October 2007 at http://www.iclei.org/documents/USA/documents/CCP/ICLEICCP_International_Report-2006.pdf/.
About ICLEI, accessed 15 October 2007 at http://www.iclei.org/index.php?id=global-about-iclei.
ICLEI USA 2006 Year in Review, 1 and 2, accessed 15 October 2007 at http://www.iclei.org/documents/USA/documents/yearinreview/2006-USA-YearInReview.pdf.
ICLEI International Progress Report: Cities for Climate Protection, 4.
John Bailey, Lessons from the Pioneers: Tackling Global Warming at the Local Level (Minneapolis, MN: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 2007), 3.
Nicholas D. Kristof, “Another Small Step for Earth,” New York Times (30 July 2006), sec. 4, 13.
Harriet Bulkeley and Michele M. Betsill, Cities and Climate Change: Urban Sustainability and Global Environmental Governance (London, U.K.: Routledge, 2003), 171.
Michele M. Betsill, Cities and Climate Change: Urban Sustainability and Global Environmental Governance (London, U.K.: Routledge, 2003) Ibid., 184–185.
Michele M. Betsill, Cities and Climate Change: Urban Sustainability and Global Environmental Governance (London, U.K.: Routledge, 2003) Ibid., 187.
Jonathan L. Ramseur, Climate Change: Action by States to Address Greenhouse Gas Emissions, CRS Report for Congress RL33812 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 27 April 2007), Summary.
“Separately … nine Midwestern and governors and the premier of Manitoba signed an agreement to reduce carbon emissions and set up a trading system to meet the reduction targets. The Midwestern accord is modeled on similar … similar arrangements among Northeastern, Southwestern and West Coast states,” John M. Broder, “Governors Join in Creating Regional Pacts on Climate Change,” New York Times (15 November 2007), A16.
Felicity Barringer and Kate Galbraith, “States Aim to Cut Gases By Making Polluters Pay,” New York Times (16 September 2008), A14.
Quoted in John M. Broder and Felicity Barringer, “E.P.A. Says 17 States Can’t Set Greenhouse Gas Rules for Cars,” New York Times (20 December 2007), A1, which further quoted EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson: “Climate change affects everyone regardless of where greenhouse gases occur, so California is not exclusive….” EPA granted the waiver at the end of June 2009. It allows uniform application of the California rule in the 17 states (with nearly half the U.S. car market) that adopted the California rule.
Ramseur, Climate Change: Action by States to Address Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 16.
From slide 20 of a lecture delivered by University of California, Berkeley, economist W. Michael Hanemann at Monash University, Australia, on 15 August 2008.
Ibid., Summary.
Broder, “Governors Join in Creating Regional Pacts on Climate Change.”
Ramseur, Climate Change: Action by States to Address Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Summary.
The states as laboratories is a theme developed in Kirsten H. Engel and Marc L. Miller, “Sustainable Development in the States: Leadership on Climate Change: 2007,” Arizona Legal Studies (Discussion Paper No. 07-37, December 2007).
Brunner and Klein, “Harvesting Experience,” 133–161
Darcy Frey, “How Green Is BP? New York Times Magazine (8 December 2002), 99. See also John Browne, “Beyond Kyoto,” Foreign Affairs 83 (July–August 2004), 20.
Andrew Martin, “In Eco-Friendly Factory, Low-Guilt Potato Chips,” New York Times (15 November 2007), A1.
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© 2010 Ronald D. Brunner and Amanda H. Lynch
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Brunner, R.D., Lynch, A.H. (2010). The Regime Evolves. In: Adaptive Governance and Climate Change. American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-935704-01-0_2
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