Abstract
Recent studies have shown an increasing urgency to address climate change and its impacts on ecosystems with the scale of action requiring no less than ‘a green revolution.’ A review of the climate negotiations and recent developments within the Cancun Agreements identifies five main challenges to progress. In this first chapter, the need for increased engagement of developing countries in global climate coalitions for action is discussed. It has become clear that climate policy making and sustainable development policies are increasingly becoming interlinked, especially in developing countries, where climatic changes affect achieving development goals and where climate action could improve energy access with low greenhouse gas emitting technologies for poverty alleviation. The challenge is to place the climate negotiations in this wider context of sustainability, equity and social change.
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Notes
- 1.
However, the Cancun Agreements acknowledge that the target of 2°C may not be sufficient and is notional. Recent calculations indicate that “if global GHG emissions are halved by 2050 relative to 1990, there is still a 12–45% estimated probability of exceeding 2°C—assuming a range of published climate sensitivity distributions. Emission levels in 2020 are a less robust indicator, but for the scenarios considered, the probability of exceeding 2°C rises to 53–87% if global GHG emissions are still more than 25% above 2000 levels in 2020” (Meinhausen et al. 2009).
- 2.
http://www.globalcarbonproject.org/misc/carbontrends.htm. Accessed 28 May 2011.
- 3.
These figures do not contain GHG emissions in the areas of land use, land-use change and forestry.
- 4.
The official name of the meeting was: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). It was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 3–14 June 1992. http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html. Accessed 27 August 2011.
- 5.
- 6.
Note that in Practical Action (2010), energy access is considered for a range of services: lighting, cooking and water heating, space heating, cooling, information and communications and earning a living.
- 7.
- 8.
INC was established on 21 December 1990 by the UN General Assembly (Resolution 45/212). It was scheduled that INC would deliver a draft Convention text that would be ready for signature at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, May–June 1992).
- 9.
This became known under the UNFCCC as the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
- 10.
The COP itself was established under the UNFCCC in Article 7 as the supreme body of the Convention with, among others, the task to periodically examine the obligations of the Parties. The first COP in 1995 could only be organised after the entry-into-force of the UNFCCC on 21 March 1994, 90 days after deposit of the 50th instrument of ratification (Portugal, 21 December 1993).
- 11.
It must be noted that the Kyoto Protocol eventually contained various aspects that the US delegation had introduced in the negotiations, such as the decision that industrialised countries could fulfil their commitments flexibly, i.e., by spreading compliance across a five-year commitment period, by focusing on six GHGs instead of the initial focus on CO2, and through emissions trading.
- 12.
For example, because of the concessions, Japan’s required emission reduction dropped from 6% less than 1990 levels to a 1% reduction, while Canada could let its GHG emissions increase by 5% (Benedick 2001).
- 13.
After enough industrialised countries had ratified the Kyoto Protocol so that it represented at least 55% of the total GHG emissions of industrialised countries in 1990.
- 14.
COP 15 and fifth meeting of Kyoto Protocol Parties (COP–MOP).
- 15.
Non-Annex I refers to the countries that were not included in the UNFCCC Annexes of Parties with GHG emission stabilisation targets. In practice, the term non-Annex I Parties mainly refers to developing countries.
- 16.
The terms low-carbon and low-emission development strategies are used interchangeably in literature sources. In this book, we use the term low-emission development strategies as this indicates more clearly that the focus is on mitigation of a range of greenhouse gases instead of just carbon or carbon dioxide.
- 17.
For example, the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate, launched in March 2009 to facilitate a dialogue on energy and climate change among larger developed and developing country economies, contains the following countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, the EU, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Russian Federation, South Africa, USA, and UK.
- 18.
In the context of climate change policy, Barrett (1997 and 2000) identified two aspects of trade leakage. First, countries with emission reduction commitments would switch from carbon-intensive fossil fuels to fuels with lower carbon content or to renewable energy sources. Because of the lower demand for fossil fuels in these countries, fossil fuel prices will go down, which could create an incentive for countries without commitments to increase their demand for fossil fuels. The GHG emission reduction achieved because of the commitments would thus be offset by increased emissions elsewhere. Second, Barrett (1997 and 2000) and Schreuder (2009) argue that trade leakage can occur if companies decide to shift their production from countries with commitments to countries without commitments.
- 19.
Adaptation measures can focus on reduced impacts of climate change on health and social systems and on sectors such as agriculture, biodiversity and ecosystems, production systems, and physical infrastructure, including the energy grid.
- 20.
See for further information: http://tech-action.org/. Accessed 19 September 2011.
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van der Gaast, W., Begg, K. (2012). Challenge 1: Placing Climate Actions in a Wider Sustainable Development Context. In: Challenges and Solutions for Climate Change. Green Energy and Technology. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84996-399-2_1
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