Skip to main content

Depression and Cardiovascular Disease Progression: Epidemiology, Mechanisms and Treatment

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

Depression and coronary heart disease (CHD) are the two strongest contributors to the global burden of disease.1 Both disorders are common, and while cardiovascular disease is an important factor directly contributing to mortality, depression is primarily associated with decreased health-related quality of life,2 and imposes a significant economic burden on society.3 However, there are also signs that depression may contribute to higher mortality rates, perhaps due to its association with somatic disease, and in particular CHD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Mathers CD, Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med. 2006;3(11):e442.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Rumsfeld JS. Health status and clinical practice: when will they meet? Circulation. 2002;106(1):5-7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Zellweger MJ, Osterwalder RH, Langewitz W, Pfisterer ME. Coronary artery disease and depression. Eur Heart J. 2004;25(1):3-9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Schleifer SJ, ari-Hinson MM, Coyle DA, et al. The nature and course of depression following myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149(8):1785-1789.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Rudisch B, Nemeroff CB. Epidemiology of comorbid coronary artery disease and depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;54(3):227-240.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Rutledge T, Reis VA, Linke SE, Greenberg BH, Mills PJ. Depression in heart failure a meta-analytic review of prevalence, intervention effects, and associations with clinical outcomes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48(8):1527-1537.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Thombs BD, Bass EB, Ford DE, et al. Prevalence of depression in survivors of acute myocardial infarction. J Gen Intern Med. 2006;21(1):30-38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Kessler RC, Merikangas KR, Wang PS. Prevalence, comorbidity, and service utilization for mood disorders in the United States at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2007;3:137-158.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Carney RM, Rich MW, Freedland KE, et al. Major depressive disorder predicts cardiac events in patients with coronary artery disease. Psychosom Med. 1988;50(6):627-633.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. Depression following myocardial infarction. Impact on 6-month survival. JAMA. 1993;270(15):1819-1825.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Lett HS, Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, et al. Depression as a risk factor for coronary artery disease: evidence, mechanisms, and treatment. Psychosom Med. 2004;66(3):305-315.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Van der Kooy K, van Hout H, Marwijk H, Marten H, Stehouwer C, Beekman A. Depression and the risk for cardiovascular diseases: systematic review and meta analysis. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007;22(7):613-626.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Barth J, Schumacher M, Herrmann-Lingen C. Depression as a risk factor for mortality in patients with coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. Psychosom Med. 2004;66(6):802-813.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Van Melle JP, de Jonge P, Spijkerman TA, et al. Prognostic association of depression following myocardial infarction with mortality and cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis. Psychosom Med. 2004;66(6):814-822.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Nicholson A, Kuper H, Hemingway H. Depression as an aetiologic and prognostic factor in coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis of 6362 events among 146,538 participants in 54 observational studies. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(23):2763-2774.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. Depression and 18-month prognosis after ­myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1995;91(4):999-1005.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Spijkerman TA, van den Brink RH, May JF, et al. Decreased impact of post-myocardial ­infarction depression on cardiac prognosis? J Psychosom Res. 2006;61(4):493-499.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C, Beevers DG, Lip GY. Mortality and quality of life 12 months after myocardial infarction: effects of depression and anxiety. Psychosom Med. 2001;63(2):221-230.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Mayou RA, Gill D, Thompson DR, et al. Depression and anxiety as predictors of outcome after myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med. 2000;62(2):212-219.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Carney RM, Blumenthal JA, Catellier D, et al. Depression as a risk factor for mortality after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2003;92(11):1277-1281.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Lane D, Carroll D, Lip GY. Anxiety, depression, and prognosis after myocardial infarction: is there a causal association? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(10):1808-1810.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Pickering TG, Davidson K, Shimbo D. Is depression a risk factor for coronary heart disease? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44(2):472-473.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kuper H, Nicholson A, Kivimaki M, et al. Evaluating the causal relevance of diverse risk markers: horizontal systematic review. BMJ. 2009;339:b4265.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Sorensenf C, Friis-Hasche E, Haghfelt T, Bech P. Postmyocardial infarction mortality in relation to depression: a systematic critical review. Psychother Psychosom. 2005;74(2):69-80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Van Melle JP, de Jonge P, Ormel J, et al. Relationship between left ventricular dysfunction and depression following myocardial infarction: data from the MIND-IT. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(24):2650-2656.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Brown GW, Harris TO, Hepworth C. Life events and endogenous depression. A puzzle ­reexamined. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51(7):525-534.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Juneau M, Talajic M, Bourassa MG. Gender, depression, and one-year prognosis after myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med. 1999;61(1):26-37.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Bush DE, Ziegelstein RC, Tayback M, et al. Even minimal symptoms of depression increase mortality risk after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2001;88(4):337-341.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Strik JJ, Denollet J, Lousberg R, Honig A. Comparing symptoms of depression and anxiety as predictors of cardiac events and increased health care consumption after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(10):1801-1807.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Strik JJ, Lousberg R, Cheriex EC, Honig A. One year cumulative incidence of depression ­following myocardial infarction and impact on cardiac outcome. J Psychosom Res. 2004;56(1):59-66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Moussavi S, Chatterji S, Verdes E, Tandon A, Patel V, Ustun B. Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet. 2007;370(9590):851-858.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Kronish IM, Rieckmann N, Schwartz JE, Schwartz DR, Davidson KW. Is depression after an acute coronary syndrome simply a marker of known prognostic factors for mortality? Psychosom Med. 2009;71(7):697-703.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Suls J, Bunde J. Anger, anxiety, and depression as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: the problems and implications of overlapping affective dispositions. Psychol Bull. 2005;131(2):260-300.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. The impact of negative emotions on prognosis ­following myocardial infarction: is it more than depression? Health Psychol. 1995;14(5):388-398.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Zimmerman M, McDermut W, Mattia JI. Frequency of anxiety disorders in psychiatric ­outpatients with major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157(8):1337-1340.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Denollet J, Strik JJ, Lousberg R, Honig A. Recognizing increased risk of depressive comorbidity after myocardial infarction: looking for 4 symptoms of anxiety-depression. Psychother Psychosom. 2006;75(6):346-352.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Roest AM, Martens EJ, Denollet J, de Jonge P. Prognostic association of anxiety post myocardial infarction with mortality and new cardiac events: a meta-analysis. Psychosom Med. 2010;72(6):563-569. Epub 2010 Apr 21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Denollet J, Sys SU, Stroobant N, Rombouts H, Gillebert TC, Brutsaert DL. Personality as independent predictor of long-term mortality in patients with coronary heart disease. Lancet. 1996;347(8999):417-421.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Denollet J, Type D. Personality. A potential risk factor refined. J Psychosom Res. 2000;49(4):255-266.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Denollet J. Personality and coronary heart disease: the type-D scale-16 (DS16). Ann Behav Med. 1998;20(3):209-215.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Berkman LF, Leo-Summers L, Horwitz RI. Emotional support and survival after myocardial infarction. A prospective, population-based study of the elderly. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117(12):1003-1009.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Kawachi I, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, et al. A prospective study of social networks in relation to total mortality and cardiovascular disease in men in the USA. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1996;50(3):245-251.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Williams RB, Barefoot JC, Califf RM, et al. Prognostic importance of social and economic resources among medically treated patients with angiographically documented coronary artery disease. JAMA. 1992;267(4):520-524.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Mookadam F, Arthur HM. Social support and its relationship to morbidity and mortality after acute myocardial infarction: systematic overview. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164(14):1514-1518.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Appels A, Kop W, Bar F, de Swart H, Mendes de Leon C. Vital exhaustion, extent of ­atherosclerosis, and the clinical course after successful percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Eur Heart J. 1995;16(12):1880-1885.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Kop WJ, Appels AP, de Leon CF Mendes, de Swart HB, Bar FW. Vital exhaustion predicts new cardiac events after successful coronary angioplasty. Psychosom Med. 1994;56(4):281-287.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Chida Y, Steptoe A. The association of anger and hostility with future coronary heart disease: a meta-analytic review of prospective evidence. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(11):936-946.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Carney RM, Blumenthal JA, Stein PK, et al. Depression, heart rate variability, and acute ­myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2001;104(17):2024-2028.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Glassman AH, Helzer JE, Covey LS, et al. Smoking, smoking cessation, and major depression. JAMA. 1990;264(12):1546-1549.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Pfohl B, Rederer M, Coryell W, Stangl D. Association between post-dexamethasone cortisol level and blood pressure in depressed inpatients. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1991;179(1):44-47.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Dantzer R, O’Connor JC, Freund GG, Johnson RW, Kelley KW. From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9(1):46-56.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Ziegelstein RC, Fauerbach JA, Stevens SS, Romanelli J, Richter DP, Bush DE. Patients with depression are less likely to follow recommendations to reduce cardiac risk during recovery from a myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(12):1818-1823.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Musselman DL, Tomer A, Manatunga AK, et al. Exaggerated platelet reactivity in major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153(10):1313-1317.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Otte C, Marmar CR, Pipkin SS, Moos R, Browner WS, Whooley MA. Depression and 24-hour urinary cortisol in medical outpatients with coronary heart disease: the Heart and Soul Study. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;56(4):241-247.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Ruo B, Rumsfeld JS, Pipkin S, Whooley MA. Relation between depressive symptoms and treadmill exercise capacity in the Heart and Soul Study. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94(1):96-99.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Schins A, Hamulyak K, Scharpe S, et al. Whole blood serotonin and platelet activation in depressed post-myocardial infarction patients. Life Sci. 2004;76(6):637-650.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Barefoot JC, Burg MM, Carney RM, et al. Aspects of social support associated with depression at hospitalization and follow-up assessment among cardiac patients. J Cardiopulm Rehabil. 2003;23(6):404-412.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Julien P. Major depression is associated with lower omega-3 fatty acid levels in patients with recent acute coronary syndromes. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;55(9):891-896.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Cohen HW, Gibson G, Alderman MH. Excess risk of myocardial infarction in patients treated with antidepressant medications: association with use of tricyclic agents. Am J Med. 2000;108(1):2-8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Otte C, Neylan TC, Pipkin SS, Browner WS, Whooley MA. Depressive symptoms and 24-hour urinary norepinephrine excretion levels in patients with coronary disease: findings from the Heart and Soul Study. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(11):2139-2145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Carney RM, Freedland KE, Miller GE, Jaffe AS. Depression as a risk factor for cardiac mortality and morbidity: a review of potential mechanisms. J Psychosom Res. 2002;53(4):897-902.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. De Jonge P, Rosmalen JG, Kema IP, et al. Psychophysiological biomarkers explaining the association between depression and prognosis in coronary artery patients: a critical review of the literature. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2010;35(1):84-90. Epub 2009 Dec 3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Joynt KE, Whellan DJ, O’Connor CM. Why is depression bad for the failing heart? a review of the mechanistic relationship between depression and heart failure. J Card Fail. 2004;10(3):258-271.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Whooley MA. Depression and cardiovascular disease: healing the broken-hearted. JAMA. 2006;295(24):2874-2881.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Grippo AJ, Johnson AK. Biological mechanisms in the relationship between depression and heart disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002;26(8):941-962.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Krittayaphong R, Cascio WE, Light KC, et al. Heart rate variability in patients with coronary artery disease: differences in patients with higher and lower depression scores. Psychosom Med. 1997;59(3):231-235.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Stein PK, Carney RM, Freedland KE, et al. Severe depression is associated with markedly reduced heart rate variability in patients with stable coronary heart disease. J Psychosom Res. 2000;48(4–5):493-500.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Irwin MR, Talajic M, Pollock BG. The relationships among heart rate variability, inflammatory markers and depression in coronary heart disease patients. Brain Behav Immun. 2009;23(8):1140-1147.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Gehi A, Mangano D, Pipkin S, Browner WS, Whooley MA. Depression and heart rate variability in patients with stable coronary heart disease: findings from the Heart and Soul Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):661-666.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Martens EJ, Nyklicek I, Szabo BM, Kupper N. Depression and anxiety as predictors of heart rate variability after myocardial infarction. Psychol Med. 2008;38(3):375-383.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Carney RM, Blumenthal JA, Freedland KE, et al. Low heart rate variability and the effect of depression on post-myocardial infarction mortality. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(13):1486-1491.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Whooley MA, de Jonge P, Vittinghoff E, et al. Depressive symptoms, health behaviors, and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2008;300(20):2379-2388.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. De Jonge P, Mangano D, Whooley MA. Differential association of cognitive and somatic depressive symptoms with heart rate variability in patients with stable coronary heart disease: findings from the Heart and Soul Study. Psychosom Med. 2007;69(8):735-739.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Sukhija R, Fahdi I, Garza L, et al. Inflammatory markers, angiographic severity of coronary artery disease, and patient outcome. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99(7):879-884.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Howren MB, Lamkin DM, Suls J. Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis. Psychosom Med. 2009;71(2):171-186.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Alexopoulos GS, Meyers BS, Young RC, Campbell S, Silbersweig D, Charlson M. ‘Vascular depression’ hypothesis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(10):915-922.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Nemeroff CB, Musselman DL. Are platelets the link between depression and ischemic heart disease? Am Heart J. 2000;140(4 suppl):57-62.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Von Kanel R. Platelet hyperactivity in clinical depression and the beneficial effect of ­antidepressant drug treatment: how strong is the evidence? Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2004;110(3):163-177.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Nijm J, Jonasson L. Inflammation and cortisol response in coronary artery disease. Ann Med. 2009;41(3):224-233.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Rosmond R, Bjorntorp P. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity as a predictor of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and stroke. J Intern Med. 2000;247(2):188-197.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Bhattacharyya MR, Molloy GJ, Steptoe A. Depression is associated with flatter cortisol rhythms in patients with coronary artery disease. J Psychosom Res. 2008;65(2):107-113.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Whitehead DL, Perkins-Porras L, Strike PC, Magid K, Steptoe A. Cortisol awakening response is elevated in acute coronary syndrome patients with type-D personality. J Psychosom Res. 2007;62(4):419-425.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Koeijvoets KC, van der Net JB, van Rossum EF, et al. Two common haplotypes of the glucocorticoid receptor gene are associated with increased susceptibility to cardiovascular disease in men with familial hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(12):4902-4908.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Bach-Mizrachi H, Underwood MD, Tin A, Ellis SP, Mann JJ, Arango V. Elevated expression of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 mRNA at the neuronal level in the dorsal and median raphe nuclei of depressed suicides. Mol Psychiatry. 2008;13(5):507-513, 465.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. McCaffery JM, Frasure-Smith N, Dube MP, et al. Common genetic vulnerability to depressive symptoms and coronary artery disease: a review and development of candidate genes related to inflammation and serotonin. Psychosom Med. 2006;68(2):187-200.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Nakatani D, Sato H, Sakata Y, et al. Influence of serotonin transporter gene polymorphism on depressive symptoms and new cardiac events after acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 2005;150(4):652-658.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Skala JA, Freedland KE, Carney RM. Coronary heart disease and depression: a review of recent mechanistic research. Can J Psychiatry. 2006;51(12):738-745.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Osterberg L, Blaschke T. Adherence to medication. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(5):487-497.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Haynes RB, McDonald HP, Garg AX. Helping patients follow prescribed treatment: clinical applications. JAMA. 2002;288(22):2880-2883.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. DiMatteo MR, Lepper HS, Croghan TW. Depression is a risk factor for noncompliance with medical treatment: meta-analysis of the effects of anxiety and depression on patient adherence. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(14):2101-2107.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Gehi AK, Ali S, Na B, Whooley MA. Self-reported medication adherence and cardiovascular events in patients with stable coronary heart disease: the heart and soul study. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(16):1798-1803.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Jolliffe JA, Rees K, Taylor RS, Thompson D, Oldridge N, Ebrahim S. Exercise-based rehabilitation for coronary heart disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(1):CD001800.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C, Beevers DG, Lip GY. Predictors of attendance at cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction. J Psychosom Res. 2001;51(3):497-501.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Casey E, Hughes JW, Waechter D, Josephson R, Rosneck J. Depression predicts failure to complete phase-II cardiac rehabilitation. J Behav Med. 2008;31(5):421-431.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Druss BG, Bradford DW, Rosenheck RA, Radford MJ, Krumholz HM. Mental disorders and use of cardiovascular procedures after myocardial infarction. JAMA. 2000;283(4):506-511.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Kisely S, Smith M, Lawrence D, Cox M, Campbell LA, Maaten S. Inequitable access for mentally ill patients to some medically necessary procedures. CMAJ. 2007;176(6):779-784.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Jee SH, Suh I, Kim IS, Appel LJ. Smoking and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in men with low levels of serum cholesterol: the Korea Medical Insurance Corporation Study. JAMA. 1999;282(22):2149-2155.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Goldenberg I, Jonas M, Tenenbaum A, et al. Current smoking, smoking cessation, and the risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with coronary artery disease. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163(19):2301-2305.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Siru R, Hulse GK, Tait RJ. Assessing motivation to quit smoking in people with mental ­illness: a review. Addiction. 2009;104(5):719-733.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Carney RM, Freedland KE, Steinmeyer B, et al. Depression and five year survival following acute myocardial infarction: a prospective study. J Affect Disord. 2008;109(1–2):133-138.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Mead GE, Morley W, Campbell P, Greig CA, McMurdo M, Lawlor DA. Exercise for ­depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(3):CD004366.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Baron RM, Kenny DA. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1986;51(6):1173-1182.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Kraemer HC, Kiernan M, Essex M, Kupfer DJ. How and why criteria defining moderators and mediators differ between the Baron & Kenny and MacArthur approaches. Health Psychol. 2008;27(2 suppl):S101-S108.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Grippo AJ, Johnson AK. Stress, depression and cardiovascular dysregulation: a review of neurobiological mechanisms and the integration of research from preclinical disease models. Stress. 2009;12(1):1-21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Carney RM, Freedland KE, Stein PK, et al. Heart rate variability and markers of inflammation and coagulation in depressed patients with coronary heart disease. J Psychosom Res. 2007;62(4):463-467.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Janszky I, Ericson M, Lekander M, et al. Inflammatory markers and heart rate variability in women with coronary heart disease. J Intern Med. 2004;256(5):421-428.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Melander H, Ahlqvist-Rastad J, Meijer G, Beermann B. Evidence b(i)ased medicine–­selective reporting from studies sponsored by pharmaceutical industry: review of studies in new drug applications. BMJ. 2003;326(7400):1171-1173.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R. Selective publication of ­antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(3):252-260.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Dusseldorp E, van Elderen T, Maes S, Meulman J, Kraaij V. A meta-analysis of psychoeduational programs for coronary heart disease patients. Health Psychol. 1999;18(5):506-519.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Linden W, Phillips MJ, Leclerc J. Psychological treatment of cardiac patients: a meta-­analysis. Eur Heart J. 2007;28(24):2972-2984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Rees K, Bennett P, West R, Davey SG, Ebrahim S. Psychological interventions for coronary heart disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(2):CD002902.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Glassman AH, O’Connor CM, Califf RM, et al. Sertraline treatment of major depression in patients with acute MI or unstable angina. JAMA. 2002;288(6):701-709.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, Koszycki D, et al. Effects of citalopram and interpersonal psychotherapy on depression in patients with coronary artery disease: the Canadian Cardiac Randomized Evaluation of Antidepressant and Psychotherapy Efficacy (CREATE) trial. JAMA. 2007;297(4):367-379.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Honig A, Kuyper AM, Schene AH, et al. Treatment of post-myocardial infarction depressive disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial with mirtazapine. Psychosom Med. 2007;69(7):606-613.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Van Melle JP, de Jonge P, Honig A, et al. Effects of antidepressant treatment following ­myocardial infarction. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:460-466.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Berkman LF, Blumenthal J, Burg M, et al. Effects of treating depression and low perceived social support on clinical events after myocardial infarction: the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease Patients (ENRICHD) randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;289(23):3106-3116.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Taylor CB, Youngblood ME, Catellier D, et al. Effects of antidepressant medication on morbidity and mortality in depressed patients after myocardial infarction. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(7):792-798.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Carney RM, Blumenthal JA, Freedland KE, et al. Depression and late mortality after myocardial infarction in the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease (ENRICHD) study. Psychosom Med. 2004;66(4):466-474.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. De Jonge P, Honig A, van Melle JP, et al. Nonresponse to treatment for depression following myocardial infarction: association with subsequent cardiac events. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(9):1371-1378.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Thombs BD, de Jonge P, Coyne JC, et al. Depression screening and patient outcomes in ­cardiovascular care: a systematic review. JAMA. 2008;300(18):2161-2171.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Martens EJ, Denollet J, Pedersen SS, et al. Relative lack of depressive cognitions in ­post-myocardial infarction depression. J Affect Disord. 2006;94(1–3):231-237.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. De Jonge P, Ormel J, van den Brink RH, et al. Symptom dimensions of depression following myocardial infarction and their relationship with somatic health status and cardiovascular prognosis. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(1):138-144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Linke SE, Rutledge T, Johnson BD, et al. Depressive symptom dimensions and cardiovascular prognosis among women with suspected myocardial ischemia: a report from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-sponsored Women’s Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(5):499-507.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Martens EJ, Hoen PW, Mittelhaeuser M, de Jonge P, Denollet J. Symptom dimensions of post-myocardial infarction depression, disease severity and cardiac prognosis. Psychol Med. 2009;20:1-8.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Smolderen KG, Spertus JA, Reid KJ, et al. The association of cognitive and somatic depressive symptoms with depression recognition and outcomes after myocardial infarction. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2009;2(4):328-337.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Schiffer AA, Pelle AJ, Smith OR, Widdershoven JW, Hendriks EH, Pedersen SS. Somatic versus cognitive symptoms of depression as predictors of all-cause mortality and health status in chronic heart failure. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009;70(12):1667-1673. Epub 2009 Jul 28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Carney RM, Freedland KE, Steinmeyer B, et al. History of depression and survival after acute myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med. 2009;71(3):253-259.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. De Jonge P, van den Brink RH, Spijkerman TA, Ormel J. Only incident depressive episodes after myocardial infarction are associated with new cardiovascular events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48(11):2204-2208.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Grace SL, Abbey SE, Kapral MK, Fang J, Nolan RP, Stewart DE. Effect of depression on five-year mortality after an acute coronary syndrome. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96(9):1179-1185.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Parker GB, Hilton TM, Walsh WF, et al. Timing is everything: the onset of depression and acute coronary syndrome outcome. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;64(8):660-666.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, Talajic M. Major depression before and after myocardial infarction: its nature and consequences. Psychosom Med. 1996;58(2):99-110.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Glassman AH, Bigger JT Jr, Gaffney M. Psychiatric characteristics associated with long-term mortality among 361 patients having an acute coronary syndrome and major depression: seven-year follow-up of SADHART participants. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(9):1022-1029.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Carney RM, Freedland KE. Treatment-resistant depression and mortality after acute coronary syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2009;166(4):410-417.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Kaptein KI, de Jonge P, van den Brink RH, Korf J. Course of depressive symptoms after myocardial infarction and cardiac prognosis: a latent class analysis. Psychosom Med. 2006;68(5):662-668.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Lichtman JH, Bigger JT Jr, Blumenthal JA, et al. Depression and coronary heart disease: recommendations for screening, referral, and treatment: a science advisory from the American Heart Association Prevention Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, and Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research: endorsed by the American Psychiatric Association. Circulation. 2008;118(17):1768-1775.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Thombs BD, Jewett LR, Knafo R, Coyne JC, Ziegelstein RC. Learning from history: a ­commentary on the American Heart Association Science Advisory on depression screening. Am Heart J. 2009;158(4):503-505.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Doraiswamy PM, et al. Exercise and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Psychosom Med. 2007;69(7):587-596.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Blumenthal JA. Depression and coronary heart disease: association and implications for treatment. Cleve Clin J Med. 2008;75(suppl 2):S48-S53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Gilbody S, Bower P, Fletcher J, Richards D, Sutton AJ. Collaborative care for depression: a cumulative meta-analysis and review of longer-term outcomes. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(21):2314-2321.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F. Depression and cardiac risk: present status and future ­directions. Heart. 2010;96(3):173-176.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Coronary-prone behavior and coronary heart disease: a critical review. The review panel on coronary-prone behavior and coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1981;63(6):1199-1215.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Petra Hoen or Peter de Jonge .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer-Verlag London Limited

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hoen, P., Kupper, N., de Jonge, P. (2011). Depression and Cardiovascular Disease Progression: Epidemiology, Mechanisms and Treatment. In: Hjemdahl, P., Steptoe, A., Rosengren, A. (eds) Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84882-419-5_12

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84882-419-5_12

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-84882-418-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-84882-419-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics