Abstract
1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) is the tool of choice for modeling Parkinson’s Disease (PD) in animals. Originally synthesized as a “designer drug” by drug users, MPTP, while not giving us the definitive answer as to the etiology of Parkinson’s disease, has enlightened many of us researchers about the molecules and mechanisms involved in dopamine neuron death. Herein, we provide information about some of the events that are involved here and try to make it clear just how complicated the death of the dopamine neuron in the MPTP model and possibly in PD seems to be.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Dauer W, Przedborski S. Parkinson’s disease: mechanisms and models. Neuron 2003; 39(6):889–909.
Mogi M, Harada M, Riederer P, Narabayashi H, Fujita K, Nagatsu T. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) increases both in the brain and in the cerebrospinal fluid from parkinsonian patients. Neurosci Lett 1994; 165(1-2):208–210.
Mogi M, Harada M, Narabayashi H, Inagaki H, Minami M, Nagatsu T. Interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6 and transforming growth factor-alpha levels are elevated in ventricular cerebrospinal fluid in juvenile parkinsonism and Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Lett 1996; 211(1):13–16.
Mogi M, Togari A, Kondo T et al. Caspase activities and tumor necrosis factor receptor R1 (p55) level are elevated in the substantia nigra from parkinsonian brain. J Neural Transm 2000; 107(3):335–341.
McGeer PL, Itagaki S, Boyes BE, McGeer EG. Reactive microglia are positive for HLA-DR in the substantia nigra of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease brains. Neurology 1988; 38(8):1285–1291.
Banati RB, Daniel SE, Blunt SB. Glial pathology but absence of apoptotic nigral neurons in long- standing Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 1998; 13(2):221–227.
DiMauro S. Mitochondrial involvement in Parkinson’s disease: The controversy continues. Neurology 1993; 43:2170–2172.
Hunot S, Boissiere F, Faucheux B et al. Nitric oxide synthase and neuronal vulnerability in Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience 1996; 72(2):355–363.
Ramsey CP, Giasson BI. Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease: Implications for treatment. Drugs Aging 2007; 24(2):95–105.
Zhou C, Huang Y, Przedborski S. Oxidative stress in Parkinson’s disease: a mechanism of pathogenic and therapeutic significance. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1147:93–104.
Vives-Bauza C, de Vries RL, Tocilescu MA, Przedborski S. Is there a pathogenic role for mitochondria in Parkinson’s disease? Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2009; 15 Suppl 3:S241–S244.
McGeer PL, McGeer EG, Itagaki S, Mizukawa K. Anatomy and pathology of the basal ganglia. Can J Neurol Sci 1987; 14(3 Suppl):363–372.
Miller WC, DeLong MR. Parkinsonian symptomatology. An anatomical and physiological analysis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1988; 515:287–302.
Langston JW, Forno LS, Tetrud J, Reeves AG, Kaplan JA, Karluk D. Evidence of active nerve cell degeneration in the substantia nigra of humans years after 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine exposure. Ann Neurol 1999; 46(4):598–605.
Snow BJ, Vingerhoets FJ, Langston JW, Tetrud JW, Sossi V, Calne DB. Pattern of dopaminergic loss in the striatum of humans with MPTP induced parkinsonism. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 2000; 68(3):313–316.
Jackson-Lewis V, Jakowec M, Burke RE, Przedborski S. Time course and morphology of dopaminergic neuronal death caused by the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine. Neurodegeneration 1995; 4:257–269.
Hald A, Lotharius J. Oxidative stress and inflammation in Parkinson’s disease: is there a causal link? Exp Neurol 2005; 193(2):279–290.
Reiter RJ. Oxidative processes and antioxidative defense mechanisms in the aging brain. FASEB J 1995; 9(7):526–533.
Gesi M, Santinami A, Ruffoli R, Conti G, Fornai F. Novel aspects of dopamine oxidative metabolism (confounding outcomes take place of certainties). Pharmacol Toxicol 2001; 89(5):217–224.
Graham DG, Tiffany SM, Bell WR, Jr., Gutknecht WF. Autoxidation versus covalent binding of quinones as the mechanism of toxicity of dopamine, 6-hydroxydopamine, and related compounds toward C1300 neuroblastoma cells in vitro. Mol Pharmacol 1978; 14(4):644–653.
Sian J, Dexter DT, Lees AJ, Daniel S, Jenner P, Marsden CD. Glutathione-related enzymes in brain in Parkinson’s disease. Ann Neurol 1994; 36:356–361.
Sofic E, Paulus W, Jellinger K, Riederer P, Youdim MB. Selective increase of iron in substantia nigra zona compacta of parkinsonian brains. J Neurochem 1991; 56(3):978–982.
Dexter DT, Wells FR, Lees AJ et al. Increased nigral iron content and alterations in other metal ions occurring in brain in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurochem 1989; 52(6):1830–1836.
Alam ZI, Jenner A, Daniel SE et al. Oxidative DNA damage in the parkinsonian brain: an apparent selective increase in 8-hydroxyguanine levels in substantia nigra. J Neurochem 1997; 69(3):1196–1203.
Yoritaka A, Hattori N, Uchida K, Tanaka M, Stadtman ER, Mizuno Y. Immunohistochemical detection of 4-hydroxynonenal protein adducts in Parkinson disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93(7):2696–2701.
Zhang J, Perry G, Smith MA et al. Parkinson’s disease is associated with oxidative damage to cytoplasmic DNA and RNA in substantia nigra neurons. Am J Pathol 1999; 154(5):1423–1429.
Picklo MJ, Amarnath V, McIntyre JO, Graham DG, Montine TJ. 4-Hydroxy-2(E)-nonenal inhibits CNS mitochondrial respiration at multiple sites. J Neurochem 1999; 72(4):1617–1624.
Graham DG. Oxidative pathways for catecholamines in the genesis of neuromelanin and cytotoxic quinones. Mol Pharmacol 1978; 14:633–643.
Ungerstedt U. Postsynaptique supersensitivity after 6-hydroxydopamine induced degeneration of the nigro-striatal system in the rat brain. Acta Physiol Scand 1971; Suppl. 367:69–93.
Przedborski S, Levivier M, Jiang H et al. Dose-dependent lesions of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway induced by intrastriatal injection of 6-hydroxydopamine. Neuroscience 1995; 67(3):631–647.
Marti MJ, James CJ, Oo TF, Kelly WJ, Burke RE. Early developmental destruction of terminals in the striatal target induces apoptosis in dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra. J Neurosci 1997; 17(6):2030–2039.
Holtz WA, Turetzky JM, Jong YJ, O’Malley KL. Oxidative stress-triggered unfolded protein response is upstream of intrinsic cell death evoked by parkinsonian mimetics. J Neurochem 2006; 99(1):54–69.
Glinka Y, Gassen M, Youdim MB. Mechanism of 6-hydroxydopamine neurotoxicity. J Neural Transm Suppl 1997; 50:55–66.
Depino AM, Earl C, Kaczmarczyk E et al. Microglial activation with atypical proinflammatory cytokine expression in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Neurosci 2003; 18(10):2731–2742.
Talpade DJ, Greene JG, Higgins DS, Jr., Greenamyre JT. In vivo labeling of mitochondrial complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) in rat brain using [(3)H]dihydrorotenone. J Neurochem 2000; 75(6):2611–2621.
Schuler F, Casida JE. Functional coupling of PSST and ND1 subunits in NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase established by photoaffinity labeling. Biochim Biophys Acta 2001; 1506(1):79–87.
Ferrante RJ, Schulz JB, Kowall NW, Beal MF. Systemic administration of rotenone produces selective damage in the striatum and globus pallidus, but not in the substantia nigra. Brain Res 1997; 753(1):157–162.
Thiffault C, Langston JW, Di Monte DA. Increased striatal dopamine turnover following acute administration of rotenone to mice. Brain Res 2000; 885(2):283–288.
Betarbet R, Sherer TB, MacKenzie G, Garcia-Osuna M, Panov AV, Greenamyre JT. Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson’s disease. Nat Neurosci 2000; 3(12):1301–1306.
Lapointe N, St-Hilaire M, Martinoli MG et al. Rotenone induces non-specific central nervous system and systemic toxicity. FASEB J 2004; 18(6):717–719.
Zhu C, Vourc’h P, Fernagut PO et al. Variable effects of chronic subcutaneous administration of rotenone on striatal histology. J Comp Neurol 2004; 478(4):418–426.
Sherer TB, Betarbet R, Kim JH, Greenamyre JT. Selective microglial activation in the rat rotenone model of Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Lett 2003; 341(2):87–90.
Mori F, Nishie M, Kakita A, Yoshimoto M, Takahashi H, Wakabayashi K. Relationship among alpha-synuclein accumulation, dopamine synthesis, and neurodegeneration in Parkinson disease substantia nigra. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2006; 65(8):808–815.
Pham CL, Leong SL, Ali FE et al. Dopamine and the dopamine oxidation product 5,6-dihydroxylindole promote distinct on-pathway and off-pathway aggregation of alpha-synuclein in a pH-dependent manner. J Mol Biol 2009; 387(3):771–785.
Berry C, La VC, Nicotera P. Paraquat and Parkinson’s disease. Cell Death Differ 2010.
Przedborski S, Ischiropoulos H. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species: weapons of neuronal destruction in models of Parkinson’s disease. Antioxid Redox Signaling 2005; 7(5-6):685–693.
Widdowson PS, Farnworth MJ, Simpson MG, Lock EA. Influence of age on the passage of paraquat through the blood-brain barrier in rats: a distribution and pathological examination. Hum Exp Toxicol 1996; 15(3):231–236.
Shimizu K, Ohtaki K, Matsubara K et al. Carrier-mediated processes in blood–brain barrier penetration and neural uptake of paraquat. Brain Res 2001; 906(1-2):135–142.
Naylor JL, Widdowson PS, Simpson MG, Farnworth M, Ellis MK, Lock EA. Further evidence that the blood/brain barrier impedes paraquat entry into the brain. Hum Exp Toxicol 1995; 14(7):587–594.
Bonneh-Barkay D, Reaney SH, Langston WJ, Di Monte DA. Redox cycling of the herbicide paraquat in microglial cultures. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 2005; 134(1):52–56.
Bonneh-Barkay D, Langston WJ, Di Monte DA. Toxicity of redox cycling pesticides in primary mesencephalic cultures. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7(5-6):649–653.
McCormack AL, Atienza JG, Langston JW, Di Monte DA. Decreased susceptibility to oxidative stress underlies the resistance of specific dopaminergic cell populations to paraquat-induced degeneration. Neuroscience 2006; 141(2):929–937.
Ossowska K, Wardas J, Kuter K et al. Influence of paraquat on dopaminergic transporter in the rat brain. Pharmacol Rep 2005; 57(3):330–335.
Peng J, Mao XO, Stevenson FF, Hsu M, Andersen JK. The herbicide paraquat induces dopaminergic nigral apoptosis through sustained activation of the JNK pathway. J Biol Chem 2004; 279(31):32626–32632.
Przedborski S, Vila M. The 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model: a tool to explore the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003; 991:189–198.
Liberatore G, Jackson-Lewis V, Vukosavic S et al. Inducible nitric oxide synthase stimulates dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the MPTP model of Parkinson disease. Nat Med 1999; 5(12):1403–1409.
Przedborski S, Tieu K, Perier C, Vila M. MPTP as a Mitochondrial Neurotoxic Model of Parkinson’s Disease. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2004; 36(4):375–379.
Przedborski S, Jackson-Lewis V. ROS and Parkinson’s disease: a view to a kill. In: Poli G, Cadenas E, Packer L, editors. Free radicals in brain pathophysiology. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 2000 p. 273–290.
Mallajosyula JK, Kaur D, Chinta SJ et al. MAO-B elevation in mouse brain astrocytes results in Parkinson’s pathology. PLoS ONE 2008; 3(2):e1616.
Teismann P, Tieu K, Cohen O et al. Pathogenic role of glial cells in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 2003; 18(2):121–129.
Abbott NJ. Developmental neurobiology. The milieu is the message. Nature 1988; 332(6164):490–491.
Spina MB, Cohen G. Dopamine turnover and glutathione oxidation: implications for Parkinson’s disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 86:1398–1400.
Hermida-Ameijeiras A, Mendez-Alvarez E, Sanchez-Iglesias S, Sanmartin-Suarez C, Soto-Otero R. Autoxidation and MAO-mediated metabolism of dopamine as a potential cause of oxidative stress: role of ferrous and ferric ions. Neurochem Int 2004; 45(1):103–116.
Lamensdorf I, Eisenhofer G, Harvey-White J, Hayakawa Y, Kirk K, Kopin IJ. Metabolic stress in PC12 cells induces the formation of the endogenous dopaminergic neurotoxin, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde. J Neurosci Res 2000; 60(4):552–558.
Kristal BS, Conway AD, Brown AM et al. Selective dopaminergic vulnerability: 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde targets mitochondria. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 30(8):924–931.
Burke WJ, Li SW, Williams EA, Nonneman R, Zahm DS. 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde is the toxic dopamine metabolite in vivo: implications for Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis. Brain Res 2003; 989(2):205–213.
Burke WJ, Li SW, Chung HD et al. Neurotoxicity of MAO metabolites of catecholamine neurotransmitters: role in neurodegenerative diseases. Neurotoxicology 2004; 25(1-2):101–115.
Slivka A, Cohen G. Hydroxyl radical attack on dopamine. J Biol Chem 1985; 260:15466–15472.
Borah A, Mohanakumar KP. Melatonin inhibits 6-hydroxydopamine production in the brain to protect against experimental parkinsonism in rodents. J Pineal Res 2009; 47(4):293–300.
Cui M, Aras R, Christian WV et al. The organic cation transporter-3 is a pivotal modulator of neurodegeneration in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106(19):8043–8048.
Storch A, Ludolph AC, Schwarz J. Dopamine transporter: involvement in selective dopaminergic neurotoxicity and degeneration. J Neural Transm 2004; 111(10-11):1267–1286.
Kurosaki R, Muramatsu Y, Watanabe H et al. Role of dopamine transporter against MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) neurotoxicity in mice. Metab Brain Dis 2003; 18(2):139–146.
Serra PA, Pluchino S, Marchetti B, Desole MS, Miele E. The MPTP mouse model: cues on DA release and neural stem cell restorative role. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2008; 14 Suppl 2:S189–S193.
Chen MK, Kuwabara H, Zhou Y et al. VMAT2 and dopamine neuron loss in a primate model of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurochem 2008; 105(1):78–90.
Teismann P, Tieu K, Choi DK et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 is instrumental in Parkinson’s disease neurodegeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100:5473–5478.
Rosei MA, Blarzino C, Foppoli C, Mosca L, Coccia R. Lipoxygenase-catalyzed oxidation of catecholamines. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994; 200(1):344–350.
Mattammal MB, Haring JH, Chung HD, Raghu G, Strong R. An endogenous dopaminergic neurotoxin: Implication for Parkinson’s disease. Neurodegeneration 1995; 4:271–281.
Foppoli C, Coccia R, Cini C, Rosei MA. Catecholamines oxidation by xanthine oxidase. Biochim Biophys Acta 1997; 1334(2-3):200–206.
Forno LS, DeLanney LE, Irwin I, Di Monte D, Langston JW. Astrocytes and Parkinson’s disease. Prog Brain Res 1992; 94:429–436.
Mirza B, Hadberg H, Thomsen P, Moos T. The absence of reactive astrocytosis is indicative of a unique inflammatory process in Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience 2000; 95(2):425–432.
Vila M, Wu DC, Przedborski S. Engineered modeling and the secrets of Parkinson’s disease. Trends Neurosci 2001; 24(11 Suppl):S49–S55.
Batchelor PE, Liberatore GT, Wong JY et al. Activated macrophages and microglia induce dopaminergic sprouting in the injured striatum and express brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. J Neurosci 1999; 19(5):1708–1716.
Kreutzberg GW. Microglia: a sensor for pathological events in the CNS. Trends Neurosci 1996; 19(8):312–318.
Banati RB, Gehrmann J, Schubert P, Kreutzberg GW. Cytotoxicity of microglia. Glia 1993; 7(1):111–118.
Gehrmann J, Banati RB, Wiessner C, Hossmann KA, Kreutzberg GW. Reactive microglia in cerebral ischaemia: an early mediator of tissue damage? Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1995; 21(4):277–289.
Hopkins SJ, Rothwell NJ. Cytokines and the nervous system. I: Expression and recognition. Trends Neurosci 1995; 18(2):83–88.
Bacon KB, Harrison JK. Chemokines and their receptors in neurobiology: perspectives in physiology and homeostasis. J Neuroimmunol 2000; 104(1):92–97.
Ferger B, Leng A, Mura A, Hengerer B, Feldon J. Genetic ablation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and pharmacological inhibition of TNF-synthesis attenuates MPTP toxicity in mouse striatum. J Neurochem 2004; 89(4):822–833.
Nagatsu T, Mogi M, Ichinose H, Togari A. Changes in cytokines and neurotrophins in Parkinson’s disease. J Neural Transm Suppl 2000;(60):277–290.
Hebert G, Arsaut J, Dantzer R, motes-Mainard J. Time-course of the expression of inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases in the striatum and mesencephalon of mice injected with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, a dopaminergic neurotoxin. Neurosci Lett 2003; 349(3):191–195.
Ciesielska A, Joniec I, Kurkowska-Jastrzebska I et al. Influence of age and gender on cytokine expression in a murine model of Parkinson’s disease. Neuroimmunomodulation 2007; 14(5):255–265.
Pattarini R, Smeyne RJ, Morgan JI. Temporal mRNA profiles of inflammatory mediators in the murine 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyrimidine model of Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience 2007; 145(2):654–668.
Sriram K, Matheson JM, Benkovic SA, Miller DB, Luster MI, O’Callaghan JP. Deficiency of TNF receptors suppresses microglial activation and alters the susceptibility of brain regions to MPTP-induced neurotoxicity: role of TNF-alpha. FASEB J 2006; 20(6):670–682.
Ferger B, Leng A, Mura A, Hengerer B, Feldon J. Genetic ablation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and pharmacological inhibition of TNF-synthesis attenuates MPTP toxicity in mouse striatum. J Neurochem 2004; 89(4):822–833.
Wu DC, Teismann P, Tieu K et al. NADPH oxidase mediates oxidative stress in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine model of Parkinson’s disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100:6145–6150.
Yasuda Y, Shimoda T, Uno K et al. The effects of MPTP on the activation of microglia/astrocytes and cytokine/chemokine levels in different mice strains. J Neuroimmunol 2008; 204(1-2):43–51.
Farina C, Aloisi F, Meinl E. Astrocytes are active players in cerebral innate immunity. Trends in Immunology 2007; 28(3):138–145.
Wu DC, Jackson-Lewis V, Vila M et al. Blockade of microglial activation is neuroprotective in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model of Parkinson disease. J Neurosci 2002; 22(5):1763–1771.
Hunot S, Brugg B, Ricard D et al. Nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB is increased in dopaminergic neurons of patients with Parkinson disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94(14):7531–7536.
Karin M, Lin A. NF-kappaB at the crossroads of life and death. Nat Immunol 2002; 3(3):221–227.
Aoki E, Yano R, Yokoyama H, Kato H, Araki T. Role of nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) for MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahyropyridine)-induced apoptosis in nigral neurons of mice. Exp Mol Pathol 2009; 86(1):57–64.
Perez-Otano I, McMillian MK, Chen J, Bing G, Hong JS, Pennypacker KR. Induction of NF-kB-like transcription factors in brain areas susceptible to kainate toxicity. Glia 1996; 16(4):306–315.
Przedborski S. Neuroinflammation and Parkinson’s disease. In: Koller WC, Melamed E, editors. Parkinson’s disease and related disorders. New York: Elsevier; 2007 p. 535–551.
Jackson-Lewis V, Smeyne RJ. MPTP and SNpc DA neuronal vulnerability: role of dopamine, superoxide and nitric oxide in neurotoxicity. Minireview. Neurotox Res 2005; 7(3):193–202.
Teismann P, Vila M, Choi DK et al. COX-2 and neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2003; 991:272–277.
Przedborski S, Kostic V, Jackson-Lewis V et al. Transgenic mice with increased Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase activity are resistant to N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 1992; 12(5):1658–1667.
Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutases. In: Meister A, editor. Advances in enzymology, Vol. 58. New York: Wiley; 1986 p. 61–97.
Jaarsma D, Rognoni F, van Duijn W, Verspaget HW, Haasdijk ED, Holstege JC. CuZn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) accumulates in vacuolated mitochondria in transgenic mice expressing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-linked SOD1 mutations. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 2001; 102(4):293–305.
Higgins CM, Jung C, Ding H, Xu Z. Mutant CuZn superoxide dismutase that causes motoneuron degeneration is present in mitochondria in the CNS. J Neurosci 2002; 22(6):RC215.
Mattiazzi M, D’Aurelio M, Gajewski CD et al. Mutated human SOD1 causes dysfunction of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria of transgenic mice. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(33):29626–29633.
Liu J, Lillo C, Jonsson PA et al. Toxicity of familial ALS-linked SOD1 mutants from selective recruitment to spinal mitochondria. Neuron 2004; 43(1):5–17.
Pasinelli P, Belford ME, Lennon N et al. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-associated SOD1 mutant proteins bind and aggregate with Bcl-2 in spinal cord mitochondria. Neuron 2004; 43(1):19–30.
Vijayvergiya C, Beal MF, Buck J, Manfredi G. Mutant superoxide dismutase 1 forms aggregates in the brain mitochondrial matrix of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mice. J Neurosci 2005; 25(10):2463–2470.
Lindenau J, Noack H, Possel H, Asayama K, Wolf G. Cellular distribution of superoxide dismutases in the rat CNS. Glia 2000; 29(1):25–34.
Andreassen OA, Ferrante RJ, Dedeoglu A et al. Mice with a partial deficiency of manganese superoxide dismutase show increased vulnerability to the mitochondrial toxins malonate, 3- nitropropionic acid, and MPTP. Exp Neurol 2001; 167(1):189–195.
Culotta VC, Yang M, O’Halloran TV. Activation of superoxide dismutases: putting the metal to the pedal. Biochim Biophys Acta 2006; 1763(7):747–758.
Przedborski S, Jackson-Lewis V, Kostic V, Carlson E, Epstein CJ, Cadet JL. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities in copper/zinc-superoxide dismutase transgenic mice. J Neurochem 1992; 58:1760–1767.
Benov L, Sztejnberg L, Fridovich I. Critical evaluation of the use of hydroethidine as a measure of superoxide anion radical. Free Radic Biol Med 1998; 25(7):826–831.
Schmued LC, Hopkins KJ. Fluoro-Jade: novel fluorochromes for detecting toxicant-induced neuronal degeneration. Toxicol Pathol 2000; 28(1):91–99.
Hoang T, Choi DK, Nagai M et al. Neuronal NOS and cyclooxygenase-2 contribute to DNA damage in a mouse model of Parkinson disease. Free Radic Biol Med 2009; 47(7):1049–1056.
Chen H, Zhang SM, Hernan MA et al. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the risk of Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2003; 60(8):1059–1064.
Babior BM. NADPH oxidase: an update. Blood 1999; 93(5):1464–1476.
Liochev SI, Fridovich I. Superoxide and nitric oxide: consequences of varying rates of production and consumption: a theoretical treatment. Free Radic Biol Med 2002; 33(1):137–141.
Przedborski S, Dawson TM. The role of nitric oxide in Parkinson’s disease. In: Mouradian MM, editor. Parkinson’s disease. Methods and protocols. New Jersey: Humana Press; 2001 p. 113–136.
Fridovich I. Superoxide radical and superoxide dismutases. Annu Rev Biochem 1995; 64:97–112.
Przedborski S, Jackson-Lewis V, Yokoyama R, Shibata T, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Role of neuronal nitric oxide in MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine)-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:4565–4571.
Hunot S, Dugas N, Faucheux B et al. FceRII/CD23 is expressed in Parkinson’s disease and induces, in vitro, production of nitric oxide and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in glial cells. J Neurosci 1999; 19(9):3440–3447.
O’Callaghan JP, Sriram K, Miller DB. Defining “neuroinflammation”. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1139:318–330.
Radi R, Cassina A, Hodara R, Quijano C, Castro L. Peroxynitrite reactions and formation in mitochondria. Free Radic Biol Med 2002; 33(11):1451–1464.
Dringen R, Pawlowski PG, Hirrlinger J. Peroxide detoxification by brain cells. J Neurosci Res 2005; 79(1-2):157–165.
Blanchard-Fillion B, Souza JM, Friel T et al. Nitration and inactivation of tyrosine hydroxylase by peroxynitrite. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(49):46017–46023.
Quijano C, Romero N, Radi R. Tyrosine nitration by superoxide and nitric oxide fluxes in biological systems: modeling the impact of superoxide dismutase and nitric oxide diffusion. Free Radic Biol Med 2005; 39(6):728–741.
Daveu C, Servy C, Dendane M, Marin P, Ducrocq C. Oxidation and nitration of catecholamines by nitrogen oxides derived from nitric oxide. Nitric Oxide 1997; 1(3):234–243.
Przedborski S, Jackson-Lewis V, Djaldetti R et al. The parkinsonian toxin MPTP: action and mechanism. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2000; 16:135–142.
Szabo C, Ischiropoulos H, Radi R. Peroxynitrite: biochemistry, pathophysiology and development of therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007; 6(8):662–680.
Hatefi Y. The mitochondrial electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation system. Annu Rev Biochem 1985; 54:1015–1069.
Abrahams JP, Leslie AG, Lutter R, Walker JE. Structure at 2.8 A resolution of F1-ATPase from bovine heart mitochondria. Nature 1994; 370(6491):621–628.
Boyer PD. The ATP synthase–a splendid molecular machine. Annu Rev Biochem 1997; 66:717–749.
Nakamoto RK. Molecular Features of Energy Coupling in the F(0)F(1) ATP Synthase. News Physiol Sci 1999; 14:40–46.
Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutases. Annu Rev Biochem 1975; 44:147.
Brand MD, Affourtit C, Esteves TC et al. Mitochondrial superoxide: production, biological effects, and activation of uncoupling proteins. Free Radic Biol Med 2004; 37(6):755–767.
Boveris A, Cadenas E, Stoppani AO. Role of ubiquinone in the mitochondrial generation of hydrogen peroxide. Biochem J 1976; 156(2):435–444.
Cadenas E, Boveris A, Ragan CI, Stoppani AO. Production of superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide by NADH-ubiquinone reductase and ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase from beef-heart mitochondria. Arch Biochem Biophys 1977; 180(2):248–257.
Drose S, Brandt U. The mechanism of mitochondrial superoxide production by the cytochrome bc1 complex. J Biol Chem 2008; 283(31):21649–21654.
Borek A, Sarewicz M, Osyczka A. Movement of the iron-sulfur head domain of cytochrome bc(1) transiently opens the catalytic Q(o) site for reaction with oxygen. Biochemistry 2008; 47(47):12365–12370.
Turrens JF, Boveris A. Generation of superoxide anion by NADH dehydrogenase of bovine heart mitochondria. Biochem J 1980; 191:421–427.
Kushnareva Y, Murphy AN, Andreyev A. Complex I-mediated reactive oxygen species generation: modulation by cytochrome c and NAD(P)+ oxidation-reduction state. Biochem J 2002; 368(Pt 2):545–553.
Galkin A, Brandt U. Superoxide radical formation by pure complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) from Yarrowia lipolytica. J Biol Chem 2005; 280(34):30129–30135.
Kussmaul L, Hirst J. The mechanism of superoxide production by NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) from bovine heart mitochondria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103(20):7607–7612.
Desai VG, Feuers RJ, Hart RW, Ali SF. MPP+-induced neurotoxicity in mouse is age-dependent: Evidenced by the selective inhibition of complexes of electron transport. Brain Res 1996; 715(1-2):1–8.
Ramsay RR, Krueger MJ, Youngster SK, Gluck MR, Casida JE, Singer TP. Interaction of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion (MPP+) and its analogs with the rotenone/piericidin binding site of NADH dehydrogenase. J Neurochem 1991; 56:1184–1190.
Richardson JR, Caudle WM, Guillot TS et al. Obligatory role for complex I inhibition in the dopaminergic neurotoxicity of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Toxicol Sci 2007; 95(1):196–204.
Bayir H, Kagan VE, Clark RS et al. Neuronal NOS-mediated nitration and inactivation of manganese superoxide dismutase in brain after experimental and human brain injury. J Neurochem 2007; 101(1):168–181.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jackson-Lewis, V., Tocilescu, M.A., DeVries, R., Alessi, D.M., Przedborski, S. (2011). MPTP and Oxidative Stress: It’s Complicated!. In: Basu, S., Wiklund, L. (eds) Studies on Experimental Models. Oxidative Stress in Applied Basic Research and Clinical Practice. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-956-7_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-956-7_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-1-60761-955-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-60761-956-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)