Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Infectious Diseases of the Skin I: Dermatophytosis/Onychomycosis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Molecular Diagnostics in Dermatology and Dermatopathology

Part of the book series: Current Clinical Pathology ((CCPATH))

Abstract

Dermatophytes are a unique group of fungi that infect keratinous tissue, including skin, hair, and nails, resulting in cutaneous mycoses called dermatophytoses, tinea, or ringworm infections. This closely-related group of organisms can be categorized into one of three genera: Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Species within these genera that do not invade keratinous ­tissue are, by definition, not regarded as dermatophytes. As with a number of fungi, dermatophytes may exhibit two phases in their life cycle: the anamorph state (imperfect or asexual phase), which is isolated in the laboratory; and the teleomorph state (perfect or sexual phase). Not all of the teleomorphs for dermatophyte species have been identified, but the generic name for both Trichophyton and Microsporum is Arthroderma [1]. Dermatophyte infections are generally named according to the anatomic locations involved. For example, infection of the feet, nails, scalp/eyebrows/eyelashes, groin, and other body sites are termed tinea pedis, tinea unguium, tinea capitis, tinea cruris (intertrigo), and tinea corporis, respectively. A single dermatophyte species may infect several anatomic sites, and different species can result in clinically identical lesions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Rippon JW. Medical mycology: the pathogenic fungi and the pathogenic actinomycetes. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Hainer BL. Dermatophyte infections. Am Fam Physician. 2003;67:101–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Hay R. Literature review. Onychomycosis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2005;19 Suppl 1:1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Elewski BE. Tinea capitis: a current perspective. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000;42:1–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Elewski BE. Onychomycosis. Treatment, quality of life, and economic issues. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2000;1:19–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Jennings MB, Pollak R, Harkless LB, et al. Treatment of toenail onychomycosis with oral terbinafine plus aggressive debridement: IRON-CLAD, a large, randomized, open-label, multicenter trial. J Am Pediatr Med Assoc. 2006;96:465–73.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Rupke SJ. Fungal skin disorders. Prim Care. 2000;27:407–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Deng S, Bulmer GS, Summerbell RC, et al. Changes in frequency of agents of tinea capitis in school children from Western China suggest slow migration rates in dermatophytes. Med Mycol. 2008;46:421–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Havlickova B, Czaika VA, Friedrich M. Epidemiological trends in skin mycoses worldwide. Mycoses. 2008;51 Suppl 4:2–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Seebacher C, Bouchara JP, Mignon B. Updates on the epidemiology of dermatophyte infections. Mycopathologia. 2008;166:335–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Panackal AA, Halpern EF, Watson AJ. Cutaneous fungal infections in the United States: analysis of the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NAMCS) and National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NHAMCS), 1995–2004. Int J Dermatol. 2009;48:704–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Neji S, Makni F, Cheikhrouhou F, et al. Epidemiology of dermatophytoses in Sfax, Tunisia. Mycoses. 2009;52:534–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Godoy-Martinez P, Nunes FG, Tomimori-Yamashita J, et al. Onychomycosis in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Mycopathologia. 2009;168:111–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Zaki SM, Ibrahim N, Aoyama K, et al. Dermatophyte infections in Cairo, Egypt. Mycopathologia. 2009;167:133–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Lawry MA, Haneke E, Strobeck K, et al. Methods for diagnosing onychomycosis: a comparative study and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol. 2000;136:1112–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Weinberg JM, Koestenblatt EK, Tutrone WD, et al. Comparison of diagnostic methods in the evaluation of ­onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003;49:193–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Miranda MFR, Silva AJG. Vinyl adhesive tape also effective for direct microscopy diagnosis of chromomycosis, lobomycosis, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;52:39–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Mohanty J, Mohanty S, Sahoo R, et al. Diagnosis of superficial mycoses by direct microscopy – A statistical evaluation. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 1999;65:72–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Brasil KW, Pinheiro RL, Pimentel IC. Laboratory diagnosis of superficial and cutaneous mycosis: a comparison of the potassium hydroxide and calcofluor white methods. An Bras Dermatol. 2003;78:547–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Elston DM. Fluorescence of fungi in superficial and deep fungal infections. BMC Microbiol. 2001;1:21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Murray PR, Baron EJ. Manual of clinical microbiology. 9th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Haldane DJ, Robart E. A comparison of calcofluor white, potassium hydroxide, and culture for the laboratory diagnosis of superficial fungal infection. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1990;13:337–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. McGinnis MR. Laboratory handbook of medical mycology. New York: Academic; 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  24. St-Germain G, Summerbell RC. Identifying filamentous fungi: a clinical laboratory handbook. Belmont CA: Star Publishing; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Sutton DA, Fothergill AW, Rinaldi MG. Guide to clinically significant fungi. 1st ed. Baltimore, MA: Williams & Wilkins; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Pierard GE, Arrese JE, De Doncker P, et al. Present and potential diagnostic techniques in onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996;34:273–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Baek SC, Chae HJ, Houh D, et al. Detection and differentiation of causative fungi of onychomycosis using PCR amplification and restriction enzyme analysis. Int J Dermatol. 1998;37:682–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Binstock JM. Molecular biology techniques for identifying dermatophytes and their possible use in diagnosing onychomycosis in human toenail: A review. J Am Pediatr Med Assoc. 2007;97:134–44.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Kanbe T. Molecular approaches in the diagnosis of dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia. 2008;166:307–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. de Bievre C, Dauguet C, Nguyen VH, et al. Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of several Trichophyton rubrum isolates from clinical specimens. Ann Inst Pasteur Microbiol. 1987;138:719–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Nishio K, Kawasaki M, Ishizaki H. Phylogeny of the genera Trichophyton using mitochondrial DNA analysis. Mycopathologia. 1992;117:127–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Kawasaki M, Aoki M, Ishizaki H, et al. Phylogenetic relationships of the genera Arthroderma and Nannizzia inferred from mitochondrial DNA analysis. Mycopathologia. 1992;118:95–102.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Kawasaki M, Ishizaki H, Aoki M, et al. Phylogeny of Nannizzia incurvata, N. gypsea, N. fulva and N. otae by restriction enzyme analysis of mitochondrial DNA. Mycopathologia. 1990;112:173–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Mochizuki T, Takada K, Watanabe S, et al. Taxonomy of Trichophyton interdigitale (Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale) by restriction enzyme analysis of mitochondrial DNA. J Med Vet Mycol. 1990;28:191–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Bock M, Maiwald M, Kappe R, et al. Polymerase chain reaction-based detection of dermatophyte DNA with a fungus-specific primer system. Mycoses. 1994;37:79–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Bock M, Nickel P, Maiwald M, et al. Diagnosis of dermatomycoses with polymerase chain reaction. Hautarzt. 1997;48:175–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Liu D, Coloe S, Baird R, et al. PCR identification of Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale and T. mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes dermatophytes with a random primer. J Med Microbiol. 1997;46:1043–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Liu D, Coloe S, Baird R, et al. Molecular determination of dermatophyte fungi using the arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction. Br J Dermatol. 1997;137:351–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Liu D, Coloe S, Baird R, et al. Application of PCR to the identification of dermatophyte fungi. J Med Microbiol. 2000;49:493–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Liu D, Pearce L, Lilley G, et al. PCR identification of dermatophyte fungi Trichophyton rubrum, T. soudanense and T. gourvilii.. J Med Microbiol. 2002;51:117–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Zhong ZR, Li R, Li D, et al. Typing of common dermatophytes by random amplification of polymorphic DNA. Jap J Med Mycol. 1997;38:239–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Graser Y, el Fari M, Presber W, et al. Identification of common dermatophytes (Trichophyton, Microsporum, Epidermophyton) using polymerase chain reactions. Br J Dermatol. 1998;138:576–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Mukherjee PK, Leidich SD, Isham N, et al. Clinical Trichophyton rubrum strain exhibiting primary resistance to terbinafine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:82–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Faggi E, Pini G, Campisi E, et al. Application of PCR to distinguish common species of dermatophytes. J Clin Microbiol. 2001;39:3382–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Faggi E, Pini G, Campisi E. PCR fingerprinting for identification of common species of dermatophytes. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:4804–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Shehata AS, Mukherjee PK, Aboulatta HN, et al. Single-step PCR using (GACA)4 primer: Utility for rapid identification of dermatophyte species and strains. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:2641–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Kano R, Nakamura Y, Watari T, et al. Molecular analysis of chitin synthase 1 (CHS1) gene sequences of Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex and T. rubrum. Curr Microbiol. 1998;37:236–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ninet B, Jan I, Bontems O, et al. Identification of dermatophyte species by 28S ribosomal DNA sequencing with a commercial kit. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:826–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Frealle E, Rodrigue M, Gantois N, et al. Phylogenetic analysis of Trichophyton mentagrophytes human and animal isolates based on MnSOD and ITS sequence comparison. Microbiology. 2007;153:3466–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Summerbell RC, Moore MK, Starink-Willemse M, et al. ITS barcodes for Trichophyton tonsurans and T. equinum. Med Mycol. 2007;45:193–200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Fumeaux J, Mock M, Ninet B, et al. First report of Arthroderma benhamiae in Switzerland. Dermatology. 2004;208:244–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Jousson O, Lechenne B, Bontems O, et al. Secreted subtilisin gene family in Trichophyton rubrum. Gene. 2004;339:79–88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Monod M, Bontems O, Zaugg C, et al. Fast and reliable PCR/sequencing/RFLP assay for identification of fungi in onychomycoses. J Med Microbiol. 2006;55:1211–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Graser Y, Kuijpers AF, Presber W, et al. Molecular taxonomy of Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. tonsurans. Med Mycol. 1999;37:315–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Jackson CJ, Barton RC, Evans EG. Species identification and strain differentiation of dermatophyte fungi by analysis of ribosomal-DNA intergenic spacer regions. J Clin Microbiol. 1999;37:931–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Shin JH, Sung JH, Park SJ, et al. Species identification and strain differentiation of dermatophyte fungi using polymerase chain reaction amplification and restriction enzyme analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003;48:857–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Brillowska-Dabrowska A, Saunte DM, Arendrup MC. Five-hour diagnosis of dermatophyte nail infections with specific detection of Trichophyton rubrum. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:1200–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Ding J, Li J, Liu Z, et al. Clinical identification of common species of dermatophytes by PCR and PCR-RFLP. J Huazhong Univ Sci Technol Med Sci. 2004;24:642–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Gutzmer R, Mommert S, Kuttler U, et al. Rapid identification and differentiation of fungal DNA in dermatological specimens by LightCycler PCR. J Med Microbiol. 2004;53:1207–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Kamiya A, Kikuchi A, Tomita Y, et al. PCR and PCR-RFLP techniques targeting the DNA topoisomerase II gene for rapid clinical diagnosis of the etiologic agent of dermatophytosis. J Dermatol Sci. 2004;34:35–48.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. He G, Li J, Ding J, et al. Identification of common species of dermatophytes by PCR-RFLP. J Huazhong Univ Sci Technol Med Sci. 2005;25:458–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Pounder JI, Williams S, Hansen D, et al. Repetitive-sequence-PCR-based DNA fingerprinting using the Diversilab system for identification of commonly encountered dermatophytes. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43:2141–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Turenne CY, Sanche SE, Hoban DJ, et al. Rapid identification of fungi by using the ITS2 genetic region and an automated fluorescent capillary electrophoresis system. J Clin Microbiol. 1999;37:1846–51.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Beifuss B, Bezold G, Gottlober P, et al. Direct detection of five common dermatophyte species in clinical samples using a rapid and sensitive 24-h PCR-ELISA technique open to protocol transfer. Mycoses. 27 Sept 2009. [Epub ahead of print].

    Google Scholar 

  65. Okeke CN, Tsuboi R, Kawai M, et al. Isolation of an intron-containing partial sequence of the gene encoding dermatophyte actin (ACT) and detection of a fragment of the transcript by reverse transcription-nested PCR as a means of assessing the viability of dermatophytes in skin scales. J Clin Microbiol. 2001;39:101–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Nagao K, Sugita T, Ouchi T, et al. Identification of Trichophyton rubrum by nested PCR analysis from paraffin embedded specimen in trichophytia profunda acuta of the glabrous skin. Nippon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi. 2005;46:129–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Yang G, Zhang M, Li W, et al. Direct species identification of common pathogenic dermatophyte fungi in clinical specimens by semi-nested PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Mycopathologia. 2008;166:203–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Arabatzis M, van Coppenraet LE Bruijnesteijn, Kuijper EJ, et al. Diagnosis of common dermatophyte infections by a novel multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction detection/identification scheme. Br J Dermatol. 2007;157:681–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Bergmans AM, van der Ent M, Klaassen A, et al. Evaluation of a single-tube real-time PCR for detection and identification of 11 dermatophyte species in clinical material. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2010;16:704–10.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Bergmans AM, Schouls LM, van der Ent M, et al. Validation of PCR-reverse line blot, a method for rapid detection and identification of nine dermatophyte species in nail, skin and hair samples. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008;14:778–88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Cafarchia C, Otranto D, Weigl S, et al. Molecular characterization of selected dermatophytes and their identification by electrophoretic mutation scanning. Electrophoresis. 2009;30:3555–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Notomi T, Okayama H, Masubuchi H, et al. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000;28:E63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Ohori A, Endo S, Sano A, et al. Rapid identification of Ochroconis gallopava by a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) method. Vet Microbiol. 2006;114:359–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Li HC, Bouchara JP, Hsu MM, et al. Identification of dermatophytes by an oligonucleotide array. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:3160–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Sun L, Teramoto K, Sato H, et al. Characterization of ribosomal proteins as biomarkers for matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectral identification of Lactobacillus plantarum. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 2006;20:3789–98.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Fenselau C, Demirev PA. Characterization of intact microorganisms by MALDI mass spectrometry. Mass Spectrom Rev. 2001;20:157–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Amiri-Eliasi B, Fenselau C. Characterization of protein biomarkers desorbed by MALDI from whole fungal cells. Anal Chem. 2001;73:5228–31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Vargha M, Takats Z, Konopka A, et al. Optimization of MALDI-TOF MS for strain level differentiation of Arthrobacter isolates. J Microbiol Methods. 2006;66:399–409.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Santos C, Paterson RR, Venancio A, et al. Filamentous fungal characterizations by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Appl Microbiol. 2010;108:375–85.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Giddey K, Monod M, Barblan J, et al. Comprehensive analysis of proteins secreted by Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton violaceum under in vitro conditions. J Proteome Res. 2007;6:3081–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Erhard M, Hipler UC, Burmester A, et al. Identification of dermatophyte species causing onychomycosis and tinea pedis by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Exp Dermatol. 2008;17:356–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Kardjeva V, Summerbell R, Kantardjiev T, et al. Forty-eight-hour diagnosis of onychomycosis with subtyping of Trichophyton rubrum strains. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44:1419–27.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Louie M, Louie L, Simor AE. The role of DNA amplification technology in the diagnosis of infectious diseases. CMAJ. 2000;163:301–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Pfaller MA. Molecular approaches to diagnosing and managing infectious diseases: Practicality and costs. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:312–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Scherer LC, Sperhacke RD, Ruffino-Netto A, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of PCR for the rapid diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Ninove L, Tan C, Nougairede A, et al. Impact of diagnostic procedures on patient management and hospitalization cost during the 2000 and 2005 enterovirus epidemics in Marseilles, France. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2010;16:651–6.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Khairnar K, Martin D, Lau R, et al. Multiplex real-time quantitative PCR, microscopy and rapid diagnostic immuno-chromatographic tests for the detection of Plasmodium spp: performance, limit of detection analysis and quality assurance. Malar J. 2009;8:284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Mahony JB, Blackhouse G, Babwah J, et al. Cost analysis of multiplex PCR testing for diagnosing respiratory virus infections. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:2812–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Yang S, Rothman RE. PCR-based diagnostics for infectious diseases: uses, limitations, and future applications in acute-care settings. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004;4:337–48.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Chandrasekar P. Diagnostic challenges and recent advances in the early management of invasive fungal infections. Eur J Haematol. 2010;84:281–90.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Alexander BD, Pfaller MA. Contemporary tools for the diagnosis and management of invasive mycoses. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:S15–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Makimura K, Tamura Y, Mochizuki T, et al. Phylogenetic classification and species identification of dermatophyte strains based on DNA sequences of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 regions. J Clin Microbiol. 1999;37:920–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Mochizuki T, Kawasaki M, Ishizaki H, et al. Identification of several clinical isolates of dermatophytes based on the nucleotide sequence of internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS 1) in nuclear ribosomal DNA. J Dermatol. 1999;26:276–81.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Makimura K, Tamura Y, Murakami A, et al. Cluster analysis of human and animal pathogenic Microsporum species and their teleomorphic states, Arthroderma species, based on the DNA sequences of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1. Microbiol Immunol. 2001;45:209–16.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Kano R, Okabayashi K, Nakamura Y, et al. Differences among chitin synthase I gene sequences in Trichophyton rubrum and T. violaceum. Med Mycol. 2000;38:47–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Kanbe T, Suzuki Y, Kamiya A, et al. PCR-based identification of common dermatophyte species using primer sets specific for the DNA topoisomerase II genes. J Dermatol Sci. 2003;32:151–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Medical Mycology, Department of Dermatology, University Hospitals Case Medical Center, Case Western Reserve University, 11100 Euclid Avenue, Lakeside 3500, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA

    Mahmoud A. Ghannoum

Authors
  1. Pranab K. Mukherjee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nancy Isham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mahmoud A. Ghannoum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mahmoud A. Ghannoum .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Health Center, Dept. Dermatology, University of Connecticut, Farmington Ave. 263, Farmington, 06030, Connecticut, USA

    Michael J. Murphy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Mukherjee, P.K., Isham, N., Ghannoum, M.A. (2011). Infectious Diseases of the Skin I: Dermatophytosis/Onychomycosis. In: Murphy, M. (eds) Molecular Diagnostics in Dermatology and Dermatopathology. Current Clinical Pathology. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-171-4_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-171-4_15

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-60761-170-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-60761-171-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation