Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Immune System in Autism

Is There a Connection?

  • Chapter
Autism

Part of the book series: Current Clinical Neurology ((CCNEU))

Abstract

Autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) are a broad spectrum of heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorders, most with unknown etiology. Although the development of autism is suspected to be the result of a complex combination of genetic, environmental, neurobiological, and immunological factors, the role of each of these factors is still under investigation. In this chapter, we review current concepts regarding the immunological aspects of autism as they pertain to areas of our own research. Three specific areas are covered including autoantibodies in children with ASD, maternal antibodies directed against fetal brain, and immune dysfunction in children with ASD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Association AP. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Fombonne E. The prevalence of autism. JAMA 2003; 289(1): 87–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. CDC (Centers for Disease Control). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders – autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 14 sites, United States, 2002. MMWR Surveill Summ 2007; 56(1): 12–28.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Wiznitzer M. Autism and tuberous sclerosis. J Child Neurol 2004; 19(9): 675–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Rutter M. Genetic studies of autism: From the 1970s into the millennium. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2000; 28(1): 3–14.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Cohen D, Pichard N, Tordjman S, et al. Specific genetic disorders and autism: Clinical contribution towards their identification. J Autism Dev Disord 2005; 35(1): 103–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Cook EH, Jr. Genetics of autism. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2001; 10(2): 333–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Coleman M, Gillberg C. The Biology of the Autistic Syndromes. New York: Praeger Publishers; 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Bailey A, Le Couteur A, Gottesman I, et al. Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study. Psychol Med 1995; 25(1): 63–77.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Steffenburg S, Gillberg C, Hellgren L, et al. A twin study of autism in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1989; 30(3): 405–16.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Ritvo ER, Freeman BJ, Mason-Brothers A, Mo A, Ritvo AM. Concordance for the syndrome of autism in 40 pairs of afflicted twins. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142(1): 74–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Hallmayer J, Glasson EJ, Bower C, et al. On the twin risk in autism. Am J Hum Genet 2002; 71(4): 941–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Risch N, Spiker D, Lotspeich L, et al. A genomic screen of autism: Evidence for a multilocus etiology. Am J Hum Genet 1999; 65(2): 493–507.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Polleux F, Lauder JM. Toward a developmental neurobiology of autism. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2004;10(4): 303–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Burger RA, Warren R.P. Possible Immunogenetic Basis For Autism. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 1998; 4: 137–41.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Boccone L, Dessi V, Zappu A, et al. Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba syndrome with reactive nodular lymphoid hyperplasia and autism and a PTEN mutation. Am J Med Genet A 2006; 140(18): 1965–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Butler MG, Dasouki MJ, Zhou XP, et al. Subset of individuals with autism spectrum disorders and extreme macrocephaly associated with germline PTEN tumour suppressor gene mutations. J Med Genet 2005; 42(4): 318–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Goffin A, Hoefsloot LH, Bosgoed E, Swillen A, Fryns JP. PTEN mutation in a family with Cowden syndrome and autism. Am J Med Genet 2001; 105(6): 521–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Kobayashi R. Perception metamorphosis phenomenon in autism. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998; 52(6): 611–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Koyasu S. The role of PI3K in immune cells. Nat Immunol 2003; 4(4): 313–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Kwon CH, Luikart BW, Powell CM, et al. Pten regulates neuronal arborization and social interaction in mice. Neuron 2006; 50(3): 377–88.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Splawski I, Timothy KW, Sharpe LM, et al. Ca(V)1.2 calcium channel dysfunction causes a multisystem disorder including arrhythmia and autism. Cell 2004; 119(1): 19–31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Hess EV. Environmental chemicals and autoimmune disease: Cause and effect. Toxicology 2002; 181–182: 65–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Sever LE. Looking for causes of neural tube defects: where does the environment fit in? Environ Health Perspect 1995;103 Suppl 6(2):165-71.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Rodier PM, Ingram JL, Tisdale B, Nelson S, Romano J. Embryological origin for autism: Developmental anomalies of the cranial nerve motor nuclei. J Comp Neurol 1996; 370(2): 247–61.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Ingram JL, Peckham SM, Tisdale B, Rodier PM. Prenatal exposure of rats to valproic acid reproduces the cerebellar anomalies associated with autism. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2000; 22(3): 319–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Baird G, Cass H, Slonims V. Diagnosis of autism. BMJ 2003; 327(7413): 488–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Ma DQ, Cuccaro ML, Jaworski JM, et al. Dissecting the locus heterogeneity of autism: Significant linkage to chromosome 12q14. Mol Psychiatry 2007; 12(4): 376–84.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Curran S, Powell J, Neale BM, et al. An association analysis of candidate genes on chromosome 15 q11–13 and autism spectrum disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2006; 11(8): 709–13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Gauthier J, Joober R, Dube MP, et al. Autism spectrum disorders associated with X chromosome markers in French-Canadian males. Mol Psychiatry 2006; 11(2): 206–13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Philippi A, Roschmann E, Tores F, et al. Haplotypes in the gene encoding protein kinase c-beta (PRKCB1) on chromosome 16 are associated with autism. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10(10): 950–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Buxbaum JD, Silverman J, Keddache M, et al. Linkage analysis for autism in a subset families with obsessive-compulsive behaviors: Evidence for an autism susceptibility gene on chromosome 1 and further support for susceptibility genes on chromosome 6 and 19. Mol Psychiatry 2004; 9(2): 144–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Bacchelli E, Blasi F, Biondolillo M, et al. Screening of nine candidate genes for autism on chromosome 2q reveals rare nonsynonymous variants in the cAMP-GEFII gene. Mol Psychiatry 2003; 8(11): 916–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Auranen M, Varilo T, Alen R, et al. Evidence for allelic association on chromosome 3q25–27 in families with autism spectrum disorders originating from a subisolate of Finland. Mol Psychiatry 2003; 8(10): 879–84.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Jamain S, Quach H, Quintana-Murci L, et al. Y chromosome haplogroups in autistic subjects. Mol Psychiatry 2002; 7(2): 217–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Badner JA, Gershon ES. Regional meta-analysis of published data supports linkage of autism with markers on chromosome 7. Mol Psychiatry 2002; 7(1): 56–66.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. De Braekeleer M, Tremblay M, Thivierge J. Genetic analysis of genealogies in mentally retarded autistic probands from Saguenay Lac-Saint-Jean (Quebec, Canada). Ann Genet 1996; 39(1): 47–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Fisher SE, Francks C, McCracken JT, et al. A genomewide scan for loci involved in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Hum Genet 2002; 70(5): 1183–96.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Korvatska E, Van de Water J, Anders TF, Gershwin ME. Genetic and immunologic considerations in autism. Neurobiol Dis 2002; 9(2): 107–25.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Warren RP, Singh VK, Cole P, et al. Possible association of the extended MHC haplotype B44-SC30-DR4 with autism. Immunogenetics 1992; 36(4): 203–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Chudley AE. Genetic landmarks through philately – autism spectrum disorders: A genetic update. Clin Genet 2004; 65(5): 352–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Weyand CM, McCarthy TG, Goronzy JJ. Correlation between disease phenotype and genetic heterogeneity in rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Invest 1995; 95(5): 2120–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Warren RP, Odell JD, Warren WL, et al. Strong association of the third hypervariable region of HLA-DR beta 1 with autism. J Neuroimmunol 1996; 67(2): 97–102.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Hogan D, Morrow JD, Smith EM, Opp MR. Interleukin-6 alters sleep of rats. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 137(1–2): 59–66.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Larson SJ. Behavioral and motivational effects of immune-system activation. J Gen Psychol 2002; 129(4): 401–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Engstrom AH, Ohlson S, Stubbs EG, et al. Decreased expression of CD95 (FAS/APO-1) on CD4+ T-lymphocytes from participants with autism. J Develop Phys Disabil 2003; 15(2): 155–63.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Sweeten TL, Bowyer SL, Posey DJ, Halberstadt GM, McDougle CJ. Increased prevalence of familial autoimmunity in probands with pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatrics 2003; 112(5): e420.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Jyonouchi H, Sun S, Le H. Proinflammatory and regulatory cytokine production associated with innate and adaptive immune responses in children with autism spectrum disorders and developmental regression. J Neuroimmunol 2001; 120(1–2): 170–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Warren RP, Foster A, Margaretten NC. Reduced natural killer cell activity in autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1987; 26(3): 333–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Warren RP, Yonk LJ, Burger RA, et al. Deficiency of suppressor-inducer (CD4+CD45RA+) T cells in autism. Immunol Invest 1990; 19(3): 245–51.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Singh VK, Warren RP, Odell JD, Warren WL, Cole P. Antibodies to myelin basic protein in children with autistic behavior. Brain Behav Immun 1993; 7(1): 97–103.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Singh VK, Warren R, Averett R, Ghaziuddin M. Circulating autoantibodies to neuronal and glial filament proteins in autism. Pediatr Neurol 1997; 17(1): 88–90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Plioplys AV, Greaves A, Kazemi K, Silverman E. Lymphocyte function in autism and Rett syndrome. Neuropsychobiology 1994; 29(1): 12–6.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Singh VK, Lin SX, Yang VC. Serological association of measles virus and human herpesvirus-6 with brain autoantibodies in autism. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1998; 89(1): 105–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Singh VK, Singh EA, Warren RP. Hyperserotoninemia and serotonin receptor antibodies in children with autism but not mental retardation. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 41(6): 753–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Todd RD, Hickok JM, Anderson GM, Cohen DJ. Antibrain antibodies in infantile autism. Biol Psychiatry 1988; 23(6): 644–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Connolly AM, Chez MG, Pestronk A, et al. Serum autoantibodies to brain in Landau-Kleffner variant, autism, and other neurologic disorders. J Pediatr 1999; 134(5): 607–13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Silva SC, Correia C, Fesel C, et al. Autoantibody repertoires to brain tissue in autism nuclear families. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 152(1–2): 176–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Vojdani A, Campbell AW, Anyanwu E, et al. Antibodies to neuron-specific antigens in children with autism: Possible cross-reaction with encephalitogenic proteins from milk, Chlamydia pneumoniae and Streptococcus group A. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 129(1–2): 168–77.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Singer HS, Morris CM, Williams PN, et al. Antibrain antibodies in children with autism and their unaffected siblings. J Neuroimmunol 2006; 178: 149–155.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Egg R, Reindl M, Deisenhammer F, Linington C, Berger T. Anti-MOG and anti-MBP antibody subclasses in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2001; 7(5): 285–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Cabanlit M, Wills S, Goines P, Ashwood P, Van de Water J. Brain-specific autoantibodies in the plasma of subjects with autistic spectrum disorder. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007; 1107: 92–103.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Wills S, Cabanlit M, Bennett J, et al. Detection of autoantibodies to neural cells of the cerebellum in the plasma of patients with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In preparation 2008. In Press Brain, Behavior and Immunity.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Hirano T, Watanabe D, Kawaguchi SY, Pastan I, Nakanishi S. Roles of inhibitory interneurons in the cerebellar cortex. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002; 978: 405–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. De Schutter E, Vos B, Maex R. The function of cerebellar Golgi cells revisited. Prog Brain Res 2000; 124: 81–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S. Annotation: What do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2005; 46(12): 1255–68.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Tsatsanis KD, Rourke BP, Klin A, et al. Reduced thalamic volume in high-functioning individuals with autism. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 53(2): 121–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Hoekstra PJ, Kallenberg CG, Korf J, Minderaa RB. Is Tourette's syndrome an autoimmune disease? Mol Psychiatry 2002; 7(5): 437–45.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Lang B, Dale RC, Vincent A. New autoantibody mediated disorders of the central nervous system. Curr Opin Neurol 2003; 16(3): 351–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Rothermundt M, Arolt V, Bayer TA. Review of immunological and immunopathological findings in schizophrenia. Brain Behav Immun 2001; 15(4): 319–39.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Kowal C, DeGiorgio LA, Nakaoka T, et al. Cognition and immunity; antibody impairs memory. Immunity 2004; 21(2): 179–88.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Jones AL, Mowry BJ, Pender MP, Greer JM. Immune dysregulation and self-reactivity in schizophrenia: Do some cases of schizophrenia have an autoimmune basis? Immunol Cell Biol 2005; 83(1): 9–17.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Kirvan CA, Swedo SE, Heuser JS, Cunningham MW. Mimicry and autoantibody-mediated neuronal cell signaling in Sydenham chorea. Nat Med 2003; 9(7): 914–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Abdel-Rahman A, Shetty AK, Abou-Donia MB. Disruption of the blood-brain barrier and neuronal cell death in cingulate cortex, dentate gyrus, thalamus, and hypothalamus in a rat model of Gulf-War syndrome. Neurobiol Dis 2002; 10(3): 306–26.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Esposito P, Chandler N, Kandere K, et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone and brain mast cells regulate blood-brain-barrier permeability induced by acute stress. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002; 303(3): 1061–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Friedman A, Kaufer D, Shemer J, et al. Pyridostigmine brain penetration under stress enhances neuronal excitability and induces early immediate transcriptional response. Nat Med 1996; 2(12): 1382–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Xaio H, Banks WA, Niehoff ML, Morley JE. Effect of LPS on the permeability of the blood-brain barrier to insulin. Brain Res 2001; 896(1–2): 36–42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Huerta PT, Kowal C, DeGiorgio LA, Volpe BT, Diamond B. Immunity and behavior: Antibodies alter emotion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006; 103(3): 678–83.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Schmidt-Acevedo S, Perez-Romano B, Ruiz-Arguelles A. 'LE cells' result from phagocytosis of apoptotic bodies induced by antinuclear antibodies. J Autoimmun 2000; 15(1): 15–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Portales-Perez D, Alarcon-Segovia D, Llorente L, et al. Penetrating anti-DNA monoclonal antibodies induce activation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Autoimmun 1998; 11(5): 563–71.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Sisto M, Lisi S, Castellana D, et al. Autoantibodies from Sjogren's syndrome induce activation of both the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways in human salivary gland cell line A-253. J Autoimmun 2006; 27: 38–49.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Alarcon-Segovia D, Ruiz-Arguelles A, Fishbein E. Antibody to nuclear ribonucleoprotein penetrates live human mononuclear cells through Fc receptors. Nature 1978; 271(5640): 67–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Madaio MP, Yanase K. Cellular penetration and nuclear localization of anti-DNA antibodies: Mechanisms, consequences, implications and applications. J Autoimmun 1998; 11(5): 535–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Raz E, Ben-Bassat H, Davidi T, Shlomai Z, Eilat D. Cross-reactions of anti-DNA autoantibodies with cell surface proteins. Eur J Immunol 1993; 23(2): 383–90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Cohen IR, Schwartz M. Autoimmune maintenance and neuroprotection of the central nervous system. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 100(1–2): 111–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Schwartz M, Cohen IR. Autoimmunity can benefit self-maintenance. Immunol Today 2000; 21(6): 265–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Hickey WF. Basic principles of immunological surveillance of the normal central nervous system. Glia 2001; 36(2): 118–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Garty BZ, Ludomirsky A, Danon YL, Peter JB, Douglas SD. Placental transfer of immunoglobulin G subclasses. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1994; 1(6): 667–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Heininger U, Desgrandchamps D, Schaad UB. Seroprevalence of Varicella-Zoster virus IgG antibodies in Swiss children during the first 16 months of age. Vaccine 2006; 24(16): 3258–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Dalton P, Deacon R, Blamire A, et al. Maternal neuronal antibodies associated with autism and a language disorder. Ann Neurol 2003; 53(4): 533–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Zimmerman AW, Connors SL, Matteson KJ, et al. Maternal antibrain antibodies in autism. Brain Behav Immun 2007; 21: 351–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Braunschweig D, Ashwood P, Hertz-Picciotto I, et al. Maternal serum antibodies to fetal brain in autism. Manuscript in preparation 2007. Neurotoxicology 2008 Mar; 29(2): 226–31.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Hertz-Picciotto I, Croen LA, Hansen R, et al. The CHARGE study: An epidemiologic investigation of genetic and environmental factors contributing to autism. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114(7): 1119–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Simister NE. Placental transport of immunoglobulin G. Vaccine 2003; 21(24): 3365–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Harris NL, Spoerri I, Schopfer JF, et al. Mechanisms of neonatal mucosal antibody protection. J Immunol 2006; 177(9): 6256–62.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Mishima T, Kurasawa G, Ishikawa G, et al. Endothelial expression of Fc gamma receptor IIb in the full-term human placenta. Placenta 2007; 28(2–3): 170–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Tincani A, Nuzzo M, Motta M, et al. Autoimmunity and pregnancy: Autoantibodies and pregnancy in rheumatic diseases. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006; 1069: 346–52.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Soares A, Schoffen JP, De Gouveia EM, Natali MR. Effects of the neonatal treatment with monosodium glutamate on myenteric neurons and the intestine wall in the ileum of rats. J Gastroenterol 2006; 41(7): 674–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Fu J, Jiang Y, Liang L, Zhu H. Risk factors of primary thyroid dysfunction in early infants born to mothers with autoimmune thyroid disease. Acta Paediatr 2005; 94(8): 1043–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Williamson SL, Christodoulou J. Rett syndrome: New clinical and molecular insights. Eur J Hum Genet 2006; 14(8): 896–903.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Ashwood P, Anthony A, Pellicier AA, et al. Intestinal lymphoctye populations in children with regressive autism: Evidence for extensive mucosal immunopathology. J Clin Immunol 2003; 23: 504–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Stubbs EG, Crawford ML. Depressed lymphocyte responsiveness in autistic children. J Autism Child Schizophr 1977; 7(1): 49–55.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Warren RP, Margaretten NC, Pace NC, Foster A. Immune abnormalities in patients with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 1986; 16(2): 189–97.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Denney DR, Frei BW, Gaffney GR. Lymphocyte subsets and interleukin-2 receptors in autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord 1996; 26(1): 87–97.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Krause I, He XS, Gershwin ME, Shoenfeld Y. Brief report: Immune factors in autism: A critical review. J Autism Dev Disord 2002; 32(4): 337–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Heuer L, Schauer J, Goines P, et al. Reduced levels of immunoglobulin in children with autism correlates with behavioral symptoms. 2008. Submitted Autism Research.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Odell D, Maciulis A, Cutler A, et al. Confirmation of the association of the C4B null allelle in autism. Hum Immunol 2005; 66(2): 140–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Torres AR, Maciulis A, Odell D. The association of MHC genes with autism. Front Biosci 2001; 6: D936–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Yamashita Y, Fujimoto C, Nakajima E, Isagai T, Matsuishi T. Possible association between congenital cytomegalovirus infection and autistic disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2003; 33(4): 455–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Patterson PH. Maternal infection: Window on neuroimmune interactions in fetal brain development and mental illness. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2002; 12(1): 115–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Hornig M, Solbrig M, Horscroft N, Weissenbock H, Lipkin WI. Borna disease virus infection of adult and neonatal rats: models for neuropsychiatric disease. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2001; 253: 157–77.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Plata-Salaman CR, Ilyin SE, Gayle D, Romanovitch A, Carbone KM. Persistent Borna disease virus infection of neonatal rats causes brain regional changes of mRNAs for cytokines, cytokine receptor components and neuropeptides. Brain Res Bull 1999; 49(6): 441–51.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Sauder C, de la Torre JC. Cytokine expression in the rat central nervous system following perinatal Borna disease virus infection. J Neuroimmunol 1999; 96(1): 29–45.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Shi L, Fatemi SH, Sidwell RW, Patterson PH. Maternal influenza infection causes marked behavioral and pharmacological changes in the offspring. J Neurosci 2003; 23(1): 297–302.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Vargas DL, Nascimbene C, Krishnan C, Zimmerman AW, Pardo CA. Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Ann Neurol 2005; 57(1): 67–81.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Wrona D. Neural-immune interactions: An integrative view of the bidirectional relationship between the brain and immune systems. J Neuroimmunol 2006; 172(1–2): 38–58.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Haddad JJ, Saade NE, Safieh-Garabedian B. Cytokines and neuro-immune-endocrine interactions: A role for the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal revolving axis. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 133(1–2): 1–19.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Steinman L. Elaborate interactions between the immune and nervous systems. Nat Immunol 2004; 5(6): 575–81.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Marques-Deak A, Cizza G, Sternberg E. Brain-immune interactions and disease susceptibility. Mol Psychiatry 2005; 10(3): 239–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Rothwell NJ, Luheshi G, Toulmond S. Cytokines and their receptors in the central nervous system: Physiology, pharmacology, and pathology. Pharmacol Ther 1996; 69(2): 85–95.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Mignini F, Streccioni V, Amenta F. Autonomic innervation of immune organs and neuroimmune modulation. Auton Autacoid Pharmacol 2003; 23(1): 1–25.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Huh GS, Boulanger LM, Du H, et al. Functional requirement for class I MHC in CNS development and plasticity. Science 2000; 290(5499): 2155–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Biber K, Zuurman MW, Dijkstra IM, Boddeke HWGM. Chemokines in the brain: Neuroimmunology and beyond. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2002; 2(1): 63.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Mehler MF, Kessler JA. Cytokines in brain development and function. Adv Protein Chem 1998; 52: 223–51.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California, 451 E. Health Sciences Drive, Suite 6510 GBSF, Davis, CA 95616, USA

    Judy Van de Water

Authors
  1. Luke Heuer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul Ashwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Judy Van de Water
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Heuer, L., Ashwood, P., Van de Water, J. (2008). The Immune System in Autism. In: Autism. Current Clinical Neurology. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-489-0_12

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-489-0_12

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-60327-488-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-60327-489-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation