In contrast with normal hosts, in which many infectious diseases are usually self-limited, in immunocompromised patients such infections have the potential of becoming serious illnesses characterized by high morbidity and mortality rates. There are also the opportunistic infections that occur almost exclusively in immunocompromised hosts such as patients with HIV disease. Usually widely distributed in the environment, opportunistic pathogens rarely cause serious illness in immunocompetent hosts (1,2). In this context, it is important to note that prompt and correct diagnosis of disseminated opportunistic infections may become crucial as a result of overt differences in the susceptibility to anti-infectious drugs of sometimes closely related opportunistic pathogens. For example, although both Pseudallescheria boydii and Scedosporium prolificans have been recognized as causes of opportunistic hyalohyphomycoses in immunocompromised patients, diagnosis of disseminated disease caused by S. prolificans has been difficult to attain because its signs and symptoms strongly resemble those of pseudallescheriasis and pulmonary aspergillosis. However, early positive identification of S. prolificans may prove to be essential because of its extreme drug tolerance and the related poor prognosis of disseminated disease caused by this fungal pathogen (2).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Georgiev, V. St. (1998) Infectious Diseases in Immunocompromised Hosts, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Georgiev, V. St. (2003) Opportunistic Infections: Treatment and Prophylaxis, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
Georgiev, V. St. (ed.) (1988) Antifungal Drugs, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 544. The New York Academy of Sciences, New York.
Georgiev, V. St. (1988) Fungal infections and the search for novel antifungal agents, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 544, 1–3.
Nicholls, P. E. and Henry, K. (1978) Gastritis and cimetidine: a possible explanation, Lancet, 1, 1095.
Ruddell, W. S. J., Azon, A. T. R., Findlay, J. M., et al. (1980) Effect of cimetidine on the gastric bacterial flora, Lancet, 1, 672.
Seelig, M. S. (1966) The role of antibiotics in the pathogenesis of Candidainfections, Am. J. Med., 40, 887.
McVay, L. V., Jr. and Sprunt, D. H. (1951) A study of moniliasis in aureomycin therapy, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 78, 759.
Hughes, W. T., Kuhn, S., Chaudhary, S., et al. (1977) Successful chemoprophylaxis for Pneumocystis cariniipneumonia, N. Engl. J. Med., 297, 1419–1426.
Georgiev, V. St. (2003) Candida albicans. In: Opportunistic Infections: Treatment and Prophylaxis, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 239–268.
Vazquez, J. A., Boikov, D., and Sobel, J. D. (1998) Antifungal cross-resistance among Candida spp. recovered from fluconazole-refractory thrush in AIDS patients, 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, February 1–5 [abstract 490].
Fichtenbaum, C. J., Koletar, S., Yiannoutsos, C., et al. (2000) Refractory mucosal candidiasis in advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection, Clin. Infect. Dis., 30, 749–756.
Wilcox, C. M. and Karowe, M. W. (1994) Esophageal infections: etiology, diagnosis, and management, Gastroenterologist, 2, 188.
Selik, R. M., Starcher, E. T., and Curran, J. W. (1987) Opportunistic diseases reported in AIDS patients: frequencies, associations, and trends, AIDS, 1, 175.
Torssander, J., Morfeldt-Manson, L., Biberfeld, G., et al. (1987) Oral Candida albicansin HIV infection, Scand. J. Infect. Dis., 19, 291.
Abgrall, S., Charreau, I., Bloch, J., et al. (1998) Risk factors for esophageal candidiasis in HIV infection, 5th Conf. Retroviruses Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, February 1–5 [abstract 492].
Kopicko, J. J., Momodu, I., Adedokun, A., et al. (1999) Characteristics of HIV- infected men with low serum testosterone levels, Int. J. STD AIDS, 10, 817–820.
Tavitian, A., Raufman, J. P., and Rosenthal, L. E. (1986) Oral candidiasis as a marker for esophageal candidiasis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Ann. Intern. Med., 104, 54.
Pedersen, C., Gerstoff, J., Lindhardt, B. O., and Sindrup, J. (1987) Candida esophagitis associated with acute human immunodeficiency virus infection, J. Infect. Dis., 156, 529.
Green, B. I. (1990) Treatment of fungal infections in the human immunodeficiency virus-infected individual. In: Antifungal Drug Therapy: A Complete Guide for the Practitioner (Jacobs, P. H. and Nall, L., eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 237.
Oude Lashof, A. M., Donnelly, J. P., Meis, J. F., et al. (1998) Duration of antifungal treatment and development of delayed complications in patients with candidemia, 38th Intercience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [abstract J-97].
Palma-Carlos, A. G. and Palma-Carlos, M. L. (2001) Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis revisited, Allerg. Immunol. (Paris), 33, 229–232.
Mulero-Marchese, R. D., Blank, K. J., and Sieck, T. G. (1998) Genetic basis for protection against experimental vaginal candidiasis by peripheral immunization, J. Infect. Dis., 178, 227–234.
Elahi, S., Clancy, R., and Pang, G. (2001) A therapeutic vaccine for mucosal candidiasis, Vaccine, 19, 2516–2521.
Lopez, J., Pernot, C., Aho, S., et al. (2001) Decrease in Candida albicans strains with reduced susceptibility to fluconazole following changes in prescribing policies, J. Hosp. Infect., 48, 122–123.
Bini, E. J., Micale, P. L., and Weinshel, E. H. (2000) Natural history of HIV- associated esophageal disease in the era of protease inhibitor therapy, Dig. Dis. Sci., 45, 1301–1307.
Vullo, V., Mastroianni, C. M., Mengoni, F., et al. (1998) Restoration of innate immunity in HIV-infected patients after protease-inhibitr therapy, 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [I-182].
Revankar, S. G., Sanche, S. E., Dib, O. P., Caceres, M., and Patterson, T. F. (1998) Effect of highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) on recurrent oropharyngeal candidiasis in HIV-infected patients: a complex relationship, 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, February 1–5 [abstract 488].
Zingman, B. S. (1996) Resolution of refractory AIDS-related mucosal candidiasis after initiation of didanosine plus sequinavir, N. Engl. J. Med., 334, 1674.
Arribas, J. R., Hernandez-Albujar, S., Gonzalez-Garcia, J., et al. (1999) Continuous improvement of oral Candida colonization and skin test reactivity after one year of treatment with protease inhibitors, 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, January 31-February 4 [abstract 185].
Arribas, J. R., Hernandez-Albujar, S., Gonzalez-Garcia, J., et al. (1998) Prospective study of oral Candida colonization in advanced AIDS patients treated with ritonavir, 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, February 1–5 [abstract 485].
Tacconelli, E., De Bernardis, F., Tumbarello, M., et al. (1999) A direct effect of HIV protease inhibitors on Candida albicans: prevention of oral candidiasis through inhibition of fungal proteinase, 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, January 31–February 4 [abstract 184].
Cassone, A., Adriani, D., Tacconelli, E., Cauda, R., and De Bernardis, F. (1998) HIV protease inhibitors have a direct anti-Candida effect by inhibition of Candida aspartyl proteinase, 12th International Conference on AIDS, Geneva, Switzerland, June 28–July 3 [abstract 31211].
McNeil, M. M., Reiss, E., Elie, C. M., et al. (1999) Molecular analysis of serial Candida albicans isolates from HIV-infected patients with oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) demonstrating clinical resistance to fluconazole, 99th Gen. Meet. Am. Soc. Microbiol., Chicago, IL, May 27–June 2 [abstract F-104].
Rex, J. H., Walsh, T. J., Sobel, J. D., et al. (2000) Practice guidelines for the treatment of candidiasis. Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin. Infect. Dis., 30, 662–678.
Xu, J., Ramos, A. R., Vilgalys, R., and Mitchell, T. G. (2000) Clonal and spontaneous origins of fluconazole resistance in Candida albicans, J. Clin. Microbiol., 38, 1214–1220.
Loffler, J., Einsele, H., Hebart, H., et al. (2000) Phospholipid and sterol analysis of plasma membranes of azole-resistant Candida albicans strains, FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 185, 59–63.
Calabrese, D. C., Bille, J., Barchiesi, F., and Sanglard, D. (1998) Incidence of resistance mechanisms to azole antifungal agents in Candida species from HIV+ patients with oropharyngeal candidosis (OPC), 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [abstract C-152].
Vennwald, I., Seebacher, C., and Roitsch, E. (1998) Post-mortem findings in patients with repeatedly mycological demonstration of Candida glabrata, Mycoses, 41, 125–132.
Georgiev, V. St. (2003) Cryptococcus neoformans. In: Opportunistic Infections: Treatment and Prophylaxis, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 213–237.
Littman, M. C. and Walter, J. E. (1968) Cryptococcosis: current status, Am. J. Med., 45, 922.
Sabetta, J. R. and Andriole, V. T. (1985) Cryptococcal infection of the central nervous system, Med. Clin. North Am., 69, 333.
Butler, W. T., Alling, D. W., Spickard, A., and Utz, J. P. (1964) Diagnostic and prognostic value of clinical and laboratory findings in cryptococcal meningitis, N. Engl. J. Med., 270, 59.
De Witt, C. N., Dickson, P. L., and Holt, G. W. (1982) Cryptococcal meningitis: a review of 32 years’ experience, J. Neurol. Sci., 53, 283.
Sarosi, G. A., Parker, J. D., Doto, I. L., and Tosh, F. E. (1969) Amphotericin B in cryptococcal meningitis: long-term results of treatment, Ann. Intern. Med., 71, 1079.
Spikard, A., Butler, W. T., Andriole, V., and Utz, J. P. (1963) The improved prognosis of cryptococcal meningitis with amphotericin B therapy, Ann. Intern. Med., 58, 66.
Utz, J. P., Garriques, I. L., Sande, M. A., et al. (1975) Therapy of cryptococcosis with a combination of flucytosine and amphotericin B, J. Infect. Dis., 132, 368.
Zimmerman, L. E. and Rappaport, H. (1954) Occurrence of cryptococcosis in patients with malignant disease of the reticuloendothelial system, Am. J. Clin. Pathol., 24, 1050.
Perfect, J. R., Durack, D. T., and Gallis, H. A. (1983) Cryptococcemia, Medicine (Baltimore), 62, 98.
Graybill, J. R. and Alford, R. H. (1974) Cell-mediated immunity in cryptococcosis, Cell. Immunol., 14, 12.
Schimpff, S. C. and Bennett, J. E. (1975) Abnormalities in cell-mediated immunity in patients with C. neoformans infections, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 55, 430.
Krick, J. A. (1981) Familial cryptococcal meningitis, J. Infect. Dis., 143, 133.
Ieong, M. H., Reardon, C. C., Levitz, S. M., and Kornfeld, H. (2000) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of alveolar macrophages impairs their innate fungicidal activity, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 162(3 Part 1), 966–970.
Mambula, S. S., Simons, E. R., Hastey, R. P., and Levitz, S. M. (1999) Human neutrophil-mediated nonoxidative antifungal activity against Cryptococcus neoformans, 99th Gen. Meet. Am. Soc. Microbiol., Chicago, IL, May 27–June 2 [abstract F-42].
Aguirre, K., Havell, E. A., Gibson, G. W., and Johnson, L. L. (1995) Role of tumor necrosis factor and gamma interferon in acquired resistance to Cryptococcus neoformans in the central nervous system of mice, Infect. Immun., 63, 1725.
Kerkering, T. M., Duma, R. J., and Shadomy, S. (1981) The evolution of pulmonary cryptococcosis, Ann. Intern. Med., 94, 611.
Reblin, T., Meyer, A., Albrecht, H., and Greten, H. (1994) Disseminated cryptococcosis in a patient with AIDS, Mycoses, 37, 275.
Larsen, R. A., Bozzette, S., McCutchan, J. A., et al. (1989) Persistent Cryptococcus neoformans infection of the prostate after successful treatment of meningitis, Ann. Intern. Med., 111, 125.
Glassman, S. J. and Hale, M. J. (1995) Cutaneous cryptococcosis and Kaposi’s sarcoma occurring in the same lesions in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Clin. Exp. Dermatol., 20, 480.
Muccioli, C., Belfort Junior, R., Neves, R., and Rao, N. (1995) Limbal and choroidal Cryptococcus infection in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 120, 539.
Castro Guardiola, A., Ocana Rivera, I., Gasser Laguna, I., et al. (1991) 16 Cases of infectious Cryptococcus neoformans in patients with AIDS, Enferm. Infec. Microbiol. Clin., 9, 90.
Sugar, A. M. (1990) Overview: cryptococcosis in the treatment of AIDS, Mycopathologia, 114, 153.
Fur, B. (1990) Cryptococcosis in AIDS: therapeutic concepts, Mycoses, 33(Suppl. 1), 55.
Kirchner, J. T. (1996) Opportunistic fungal infections in patients with HIV disease: combating cryptococcosis and histoplasmosis, Postgrad. Med., 99, 209.
Mitchell, T. G. and Perfect, J. R. (1995) Cryptococcosis in the era of AIDS: 100 years after the discovery of Cryptococcus neoformans, Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 8, 515.
Just-Nübling, G. (1994) Therapy of candidiasis and cryptococcosis in AIDS, Mycoses, 37(Suppl. 2), 56.
Emmons, III, W. W., Luchsinger, S., and Miller, L. (1995) Progressive pulmonary cryptococcosis in a patient who is immunocompetent, South. Med. J., 88, 657.
Zuger, A., Louie, E., Holzman, R. S., Simberkoff, M. S., and Rahal, J. J. (1986) Cryptococcal disease in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: diagnostic features and outcome of treatment, Ann. Intern. Med., 104, 234.
Kovacs, J. A., Kovacs, A. A., Polis, M., et al. (1985) Cryptococcosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Ann. Intern. Med., 103, 533.
Dismukes, W. E., Cloud, G., Gallis, H. A., et al. (1987) Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis with combination amphotericin B and flucytosine for four as compared with six weeks, N. Engl. J. Med., 317, 334.
Eng, R. H. K., Bishburg, E., Smith, S. M., and Kapila, R. (1986) Cryptococcal infections in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome, Am. J. Med., 81, 19.
Theunissen, A. W. J. and Zanen, H. C. (1987) Dertig petienten net een “verborgen” ziekte: cryptococcen-memnigitis, Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd., 131, 1123.
Munoz-Peréz, M. A., Colmenero, M. A., Rodriguez-Pichardo, A., et al. (1996) Disseminated cryptococcosis presenting as moluscum-like lesions as the first manifestation of AIDS, Int. J. Dermatol., 35, 646.
Hellman, R. N., Hinrichs, J., Sicard, G., Hoover, R., Golden, P., and Hoffsten, P. (1984) Cryptococcal pyelonephritis and disseminated cryptococcosis in a renal transplant recipient, Arch. Intern. Med., 141, 128.
Liss, H. P. and Rimland, D. (1981) Asymptomatic cryptococcal meningitis, Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 124, 88.
Tarala, R. A. and Smith, J. D. (1980) Cryptococcosis treated by rapid infusion of amphotericin B, Br. Med. J., 281, 28.
Mosberg, W. H. and Arnold, J. G. (1950) Torulosis of the central nervous system: review of the literature and report of five cases, Ann. Intern. Med., 32, 1153.
Picon, L., Vaillant, L., Duong, T., et al. (1989) Cutaneous cryptococcosis resembling molluscum contagiosum: a first manifestation of AIDS, Acta Derm. Venereol. (Stockholm), 69, 365.
Beeson, P. B. (1952) Cryptococcal meningitis of nearly sixteen years’ duration, Arch. Intern. Med., 89, 797.
Campbell, G. D., Carrier, R. D., and Busey, J. F. (1981) Survival in untreated cryptococcal meningitis, Neurology, 31, 1154.
Carton, C. A. and Mount, L. A. (1951) Neurosurgical aspects of cryptococcosis, J. Neurosurg., 8, 143.
Saag, M. S., Graybill, R. J., Larsen, R. A. (2000) Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin. Infect. Dis., 30, 710–718.
Powderly, W. G. (1996) Recent advances in the management of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS, Clin. Infect. Dis., 22(Suppl. 2), S119.
Dismukes, W. E. (1993) Management of cryptococcosis, Clin. Infect. Dis., 17(Suppl. 2), S507 [see also: Clin. Infect. Dis., 19, 975 (1994)].
Powderly, W. G. (2000) Current approach to the acute management of cryptococcal infections, J. Infect., 41, 18–22.
Van der Horst, C., Saag, M., Cloud, G., et al. (1995) Randomized double blind comparison of amphotericin B (AMB) plus flucytosine to AMB alone (step 1) followed by a comparison of fluconazole to itraconazole (step 2) in the treatment of acute cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS. Part I, 35th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Francisco, CA, September 17–20 [ I-216].
Nightingale, S. D. (1995) Initial therapy for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome- associated cryptococcosis with fluconazole, Arch. Intern. Med., 13, 538.
Saag, M. S., Powderly, W. G., Cloud, G. A., et al. (1992) Comparison of amphotericin B with fluconazole in the treatment of acute AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis, N. Engl. J. Med., 326, 83.
Haubrich, R. H., Haghighat, D., Bozzette, S. A., Tilles, J., and McCutchan, J. A. (1994) High-dose fluconazole for treatment of cryptococcal disease in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection, J. Infect. Dis., 170, 238.
Meyohas, M. C., Meynard, J. L., Bollens, D., et al. (1996) Treatment of non- meningeal cryptococcosis in patients with AIDS, J. Infect., 33, 7.
Carney, M. D., Combs, J. L., and Waschler, W. (1990) Cryptococcal choroiditis, Retina, 10, 27.
Sitbon, O., Fourme, T., Bouree, P., Du Pasquier, L., and Salmeron, S. (1993) Successful treatment of disseminated cryptococcosis with high-dose oral fluconazole, AIDS, 7, 1685.
Sahai, J. (1988) Management of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS, Clin. Pharmacy, 7, 528.
Kauffman, C. A. and Frame, P. T. (1977) Bone marrow toxicity associated with 5- fluorocytosine therapy, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 11, 244.
Donahue, R. E., Johnson, M. M., Zon, L. I., Clark, S. C., and Groopman, J. E. (1987) Suppression of in vitro haematopoiesis following human immunodeficiency virus infection, Nature, 326, 200.
Kotler, D. P., Gaetz, H. P., Lange, M., Klein, E. B., and Holt, P. R. (1984) Enteropathy associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Ann. Intern. Med., 101, 421.
Stamm, A. M., Diasio, R. B., Dismukes, W. E., et al. (1987) Toxicity of amphotericin B plus flucytosine in 194 patients with cryptococcal meningitis, Am. J. Med., 83, 236.
Larsen, R. A., Leal, M. A., and Chan, L. S. (1990) Fluconazole compared with amphotericin B plus flucytosine for cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS: a randomized trial, Ann. Intern. Med., 113, 183.
Chuck, S. L. and Sande, M. A. (1989) Infections with Cryptococcus neoformans in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, N. Engl. J. Med., 321, 794.
Dismukes, W. E. (1992) Treatment of systemic fungal diseases in patients with AIDS. In: Recent Progress in Antifungal Chemotherapy (Yamaguchi, H., Kobayashi, G. S., and Takeuchi, H., eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 227–238.
Ammassari, A., Linzalone, A., Murri, R., Marasca, G., Morace, G., and Antinori, A. (1995) Fluconazole for primary prophylaxis of AIDS-associated cryptococcosis: a case controlled study, Scand. J. Infect. Dis., 27, 235.
Nelson, M. R., Fisher, M., Cartledge, J., Rogers, T., and Gazzard, B. G. (1994) The role of azoles in the treatment and prophylaxis of cryptococcal diseases in HIV infection, AIDS, 8, 652 [see also: AIDS, 9, 300 (1995)].
Manfredi, R., Mastroianni, A., Coronado, O. V., and Chiodo, F. (1997) Fluconazole as prophylaxis against fungal infection in patients with advanced HIV infection, Arch. Intern. Med., 157, 64.
Dei-Cas, E., Chabé, M., Moukhlis, R., et al. (2006) Pneumocystis oryctolagi sp. nov., an uncultured fungus causing pneumonia in rabbits at weaning: review of current knowledge, and description of a new taxon on genotypic, phylogenetic and phenotypic bases, FEMS Micriobiol. Rev., 30(6), 853–871.
Stringer, J. R., Beard, C. B., Miller, R. F., and Wakefield, A. E. (2002) A new name (Pneumocystis jiroveci) for Pneumocystis from humans, Emerg. Infect. Dis,, 8 (9), 891–896.
Redhead, S. A., Cushion, M. T., Frenkel, J. K., and Stringer, J. R. (2006) Pneumocystis and Trypanosoma cruzi: nomenclature and typifications, J. Eukaryot. Microbiol., 53(1), 2–11.
Cushion, M. T. (1998) Pneumocystis carinii. In: Topley and Wilson’s Microbiology and Microbial Infections (Collier, L., Balows, A., and Sussman, M., eds.), 9th ed., Arnold and Oxford Press, New York, pp. 645–683.
Cushion, M. T. (1998) Taxonomy, genetic organization, and life cycle of Pneumocystis carinii, Semin. Respir. Infect., 13(4), 304–312.
Cushion, M. T. (2004) Pneumocystis: unraveling the cloak of obscurity, Trends Microbiol., 12(5), 243–249.
Ryan, K. J., and Ray, C. G. (eds.) (2004) Sherris Medical Microbiology, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
Georgiev, V. St. (2003) Pneumocystis carinii. In: Opportunistic Infections: Treatment and Prophylaxis, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 507–533.
Frenkel, J. K. (1976) Pneumocystis jiroveci n. sp. from man: morphology, physiology, and immunology in relation to pathology, Natl. Cancer Inst. Monogr, 43, 13–27.
James, T. Y., Kauff, F., Schoch, C. L., et al. (2006) Reconstructing the early evolution of fungi using a six-gene phylogeny, Nature, 443(7113), 818–822.
Hugot, J., Demanche, C., Barriel, V., Dei-Cas, E., and Guillot, J. (2003) Phylogenetic systematics and evolution of primate-derived Pneumocystis based on mitochondrial or nuclear DNA sequence comparison, Syst. Biol., 52, 735–744.
Keely, S., Fischer, J., Cushion, M., and Stringer, J. (2004) Phylogenetic identification of Pneumocystis murina sp. nov., a new species in laboratory mice, Microbiology, 150(Part 5), 1153–1165.
Cushion, M. T., Keely, S. P., and Stringer, J. R. (2004) Molecular and phenotypic description of Pneumocystis wakefieldiae sp. nov., a new species in rats, Mycologia, 96, 429–438.
Cushion, M. T., Keely, S. P., and Stringer, J. R. (2005) Validation of the name Pneumocystis wakefieldiae, Mycologia, 97, 268.
Dei-Cas, E., Chabé, M., Moukhlis, R., et al (2006) Pneumocystis oryctolagi sp. nov., an uncultured fungus causing pneumonia in rabbits at weaning: review of current knowledge, and description of a new taxon on genotypic, phylogenetic and phenotypic bases, FEMS Micriobiol. Rev., 30(6), 853–871.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1981) Pneumocystis pneumonia–Los Angeles, Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep., 30, 250–252.
Fannin, S., Gottlieb, M. S., Weisman, J. D., et al (1982) A cluster of Kaposi’s sarcoma and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among homosexual male residents of Los Angeles and Range Counties, California, Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep., 31(32), 305–307.
Masur, H., Michelis, M. A., Greene, J. B., et al (1981) An outbreak of community- acquired Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, N. Engl. J. Med., 305, 1431–1438.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1986) Update: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome–United States, Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep., 35, 757–766.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1986) Update: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome–-United States, Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep., 35, 17–21.
Palella, F. J., Jr., Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C., Loveless, M. O., et al. (1998) Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus, N. Engl. J. Med., 338, 853–860.
Cushion, M. T. (1994) Transmission and epidemiology. In: Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia, 2nd ed. (Walzer, P. D., ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 251–268.
Walzer, P. D. (1994) Pathogenic mechanisms. In: Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia, 2nd ed. (Walzer, P. D., ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 123–140.
Phair, J., Munoz, A., Detels, R., Kaslow, R., Rinaldo, C., and Saah, A. (1990) The risk of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among men infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1, N. Eng. J. Med., 322, 161–165.
USPHS/IDSA (1997) USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infection in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus: disease specific recommendations, Clin. Infect. Dis., 25(Suppl. 3), S313–S335.
Kovacs, J. A., Hiemenz, J. W., Macher, A. M., Stover, D., et al. (1984) Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a comparison between patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and patients with other immunodeficiencies, Ann. Intern. Med., 100, 663–671.
Waler, R. E. and Masur, H. (1994) Current regimens of therapy and prophylaxis. In: Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia, 2nd ed. (Walzer, P. D., ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 439–466.
Safrin, S., Finkelstein, D. M., Feinberg, J., et al. (1996) Comparison of three regimens for treatment of mild to moderate Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS, Ann. Intern. Med., 124, 792–802.
Sattler, F. R., Cowan, R., Nielsen, D. M., and Rushkin, J. (1988) Trimethoprim- sulfamethoxazole compared with pentamidine for treatment of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Ann. Intern. Med., 109, 280–287.
Sattler, F. R., Frame, P. T., Davis, R., et al. (1994) Trimetrexate with leucovorin versus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for moderate to severe episodes of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS: a prospective, controlled multicenter investigation of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 029/031, J. Infect. Dis., 170, 165–172.
Hughes, W., Leoung, G., Kramer, F., et al. (1993) Comparison of atovaquone (566C80) with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole to treat Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS, N. Engl. J. Med., 328, 1521–1527.
Dohn, M. N., Weinberg, W. G., Torres, R. A., et al. (1994) Oral atovaquone compared with intravenous pentamidine for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS, Ann. Intern. Med., 121, 174–180.
Bozzette, S. A., Sattler, F. R., Chiu, J., et al. (1990) A controlled trial of early adjunctive treatment with corticosteroids for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, N. Engl. J. Med., 323, 1451–1457.
Consensus statement on the use of corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy for Pneumocystis pneumonia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (1990) N. Engl. J. Med., 323, 1500–1504.
De Palo, V. A., Millstein, B. H., Mayo, P. H., Salzmann, S. H., and Rosen, M. J. (1995) Outcome of intensive care in patients with HIV infection, Chest, 107, 506–510.
Pastores, S. M., Garay, S. M., Naidich, D. P., and Rom, W. N., (1996) Review: pneumothorax in patients with AIDS-related Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, Am. J. Med. Sci., 312, 329–334.
Ioannidis, J. P., Cappelleri, J. C., Skolnik, P. R., Lau, J., and Sacks, H. S. (1996) A meta-analysis of the relative efficacy and toxicity of Pneumocystis carinii prophylactic regimens, Arch. Intern. Med., 156, 177–188.
Bozzette, S. A., Finkelstein, D. M., Spector, S. A., et al. (1995) A randomized trial of three antipneumocystis agents in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection, N. Engl. J. Med., 332, 693–699.
Gluckstein, D. and Rushkin, J. (1995) Rapid oral desensitization to trimethoprim- sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ): use in prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS who were previously intolerant to TMP-SMZ, Clin. Infect. Dis., 20, 849–853.
Hardy, W. D., Feinberg, J., Finkelstein, D. M., et al. (1992) A controlled trial of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or aerosolized pentamidine for secondary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 021, N. Engl. J. Med., 327, 1842–1848.
Mallolas, J., Zamora, L., Gatell, J. M., et al. (1993) Primary prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a randomized trial comparing cotrimoxazole, aerosolized pentamidine and dapsone plus pyrimethamine, AIDS, 7, 59–64.
Georgiev, V. St. (2003) Cytomegalovirus. In: Opportunistic Infections: Treatment and Prophylaxis, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 3–22.
Ryan, K. J. and Ray, C. G. (eds.) (2004) Sherris Medical Microbiology, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 566–569.
Alford, C. A., Stagno, S., Pass, R. F., and Huang, E.-S. (1981) Epidemiology of cytomegalovirus. In: The Human Herpesviruses: An Interdisciplinary Perspective(Hahmias, A., Dowdle, W., and Schinazi, R., eds.), Elsevier, New York, p. 159.
Lang, D. J. (1975) The epidemiology of cytomegalovirus infections: interpretations of recent observations. In: Infections of the Fetus and the Newborn Infant, vol. 3 (Krugman, S. and Gershon, A. A., eds.), Alan R. Liss, New York, p. 35.
Lang, D. J. and Krammer, J. F. (1975) Cytomegalovirus in the semen: observations in selected populations, J. Infect. Dis., 132, 472.
Reynolds, D. W., Stagno, S., Hosty, T. S., Tiller, M., and Alford, C. A., Jr. (1981) Maternal cytomegalovirus excretion and perinatal infection, N. Engl. J. Med., 289, 1.
Stagno, S., Reynolds, D. W., Pass, R. F., and Alford, C. A. (1980) Breast milk and the risk of cytomegalovirus infection, N. Engl. J. Med., 302, 1073.
Manian, F. A. and Smith, T. (1993) Ganciclovir for the treatment of cytomegalovirus pneumonia in an immunocompetent host, Clin. Infect. Dis., 17, 137.
Blair, S. D., Forbes, A., and Parkins, R. A. (1992) CMV colitis in an immunocompetent child, J. R. Soc. Med., 85, 238.
Drew, W. L. (1988) Diagnosis of cytomegalovirus infection, Rev. Infect. Dis., 10(Suppl. 3), 468.
Drew, W. L., Sweet, E. S., Miner, R. C., and Mocarski, E. S. (1984) Multiple infections by cytomegalovirus in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: documentation by Southern blot hybridization, J. Infect. Dis., 150, 952.
Ho, M. (1982) Pathology of cytomegalovirus infection. In: Cytomegalovirus, Biology and Infection: Current Topics in Infectious Disease (Greenough III, W. B. and Merigan T. C., eds.), Plenum Press, New York, p. 119.
Becroft, D. M. O. (1981) Prenatal cytomegalovirus infection: epidemiology, pathology and pathogenesis. In: Perspectives in Pediatric Pathology (Rosenberg, H. S. and Bernstein, J., eds.), Mason Press, New York, p. 203.
Weiss, D. J., Greenfield, J. W., Jr., O’Rourke, K. S., and McCune, W. J. (1993) Systemic cytomegalovirus infection mimicking an exacerbation of Wegener’s granulomatosis, J. Rheumatol., 20, 155.
Stagno, S., Pass, R. F., Dworsky, M. E., and Alford, C. A. (1983) Congenital and perinatal cytomegalovirus infections, Semin. Perinatol., 7, 31.
Salomon, N. and Perlman, D. C. (1999) Cytomegalovirus pneumonia, Semin. Respir. Infect., 14, 353–358.
Jacobson, M. A. and Mills, J. (1988) Serious cytomegalovirus disease in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS): clinical findings, diagnosis and treatment, Ann. Intern. Med., 108, 585.
Drew, W. L. and Mintz, L. (1984) Cytomegalovirus infection in healthy and immune-deficient homosexual men. In: The Acquired ImmuneDeficiency Syndrome and Infections of Homosexual Men (Ma, P. and Armstrong, D., eds.), Yorke Medical Books, New York, p. 117.
Katlama, C. (1993) Cytomegalovirus infection in acquired immune-deficiency syndrome, J. Med. Virol., 1(Suppl.), 128.
Salmon, D., Lacassin, F., Harzic, M., et al. (1990) Predictive value of cytomegalovirus viremia for the occurrence of CMV organ involvement in AIDS, J. Med. Virol, 32, 160.
Haas, C., Marteau, P., Roudiere, L., Gisselbrecht, M., Lowenstein, W., and Durand, H. (2000) Severe cytomegalovirus enteritis in AIDS. Favorable outcome of medical treatment, Presse Med., 29, 596–597.
Millar, A. B., Patou, G., Miller, R. F., et al. (1990) Cytomegalovirus in the lungs of patients with AIDS: respiratory pathogen or passenger? Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 141, 1474.
Jacobson, M. A. (1994) Current management of cytomegalovirus disease in patients with AIDS, Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Human Retrovir., 10, 917.
Markham, A. and Faulds, D. (1994) Ganciclovir: an update of its therapeutic use in cytomegalovirus infection, Drugs, 48, 455.
Stevens, C. and Roberts, W. B., Jr. (1994) Ganciclovir: treatment of cytomegalovirus in immunocompromised individuals, ANNA, 21, 204; 209.
Bachman, D. M. (1992) Treatment of CMV retinitis, N. Engl. J. Med., 326, 1702.
Deray, G., Katlama, C., and Jacobs, C. (1992) Treatment of CMV retinitis, N. Engl. J. Med., 326, 1702.
Skolnik, P. R. (1992) Treatment of CMV retinitis, N. Engl. J. Med., 326, 1701.
Wagstaff, A. J. and Bryson, H. M. (1994) Foscarnet: a reappraisal of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in immunocompromised patients with viral infections, Drugs, 48, 199.
Greening, J. G. (1994) Intravenous foscarnet administration for treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis, J. Intraven. Nurs., 17, 74.
Wagstaff, A. J., Faulds, D., and Goa, K. L. (1994) Aciclovir: a reappraisal of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy, Drugs, 47, 153.
Polis, M. A., de Smet, M. D., Baird, B. F., et al. (1993) Increased survival of a cohort of patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and cytomegalovirus retinitis who received sodium phosphonoformate (foscarnet), Am. J. Med., 94, 175.
Smith, D. G., Jr. and Handy, C. M. (1992) A protocol for foscarnet administration, J. Intraven. Nurs., 15, 274.
Yoser, S. L., Forster, D. J., and Rao, N. A. (1993) Systemic viral infections and their retinal and choroid manifestations, Surv. Ophthalmol., 37, 313.
Spector, S. A., Weingeist, T., Pollard, R. B., et al. (1993) A randomized, controlled study of intravenous ganciclovir therapy for cytomegalovirus peripheral retinitis in patients with AIDS, J. Infect. Dis., 168, 557.
Collaborative DHPG Treatment Study Group (1986) Treatment of serious cytomegalovirus infection with 9-(1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxymethyl)guanine in patients with AIDS and other imunodeficiencies, N. Engl. J. Med., 314, 801.
Hooymans, J. M. M., Sprenger, H. G., and Weits, J. (1987) Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with DHPG in a patient with AIDS, Doc. Ophthalmol., 67, 5.
Orellana, J., Teich, S. A., Friedman, A. H., Lerebours, F., Winterkorn, J., and Mildvan, D. (1987) Combined short- and long-term therapy for the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis using ganciclovir (BW B759U), Ophthalmology, 94, 831.
Henderly, D. E., Freeman, W. R., Causey, D. M., and Rao, N. A. (1987) Cytomegalovirus retinitis and response to therapy with ganciclovir, Ophthalmology, 94, 425.
Cantrill, H. L., Henry, K., Melroe, N. H., et al. (1989) Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with intravitreal ganciclovir: long-term results, Ophthalmology, 96, 367.
Felsenstein, D., d’Amico, D. J., Hirsch, M. S., et al. (1983) Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with 9-[2-hydroxy-1- (hydroxymethyl)ethoxymethyl]guanine, Ann. Intern. Med., 103, 377.
Holland, G. N., Sidikaro, Y., Kreiger, A. E., et al. (1987) Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinopathy with ganciclovir, Ophthalmology, 94, 815.
Jabs, D. A., Enger, C., and Bartlett, J. G. (1989) Cytomegalovirus retinitis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Arch. Ophthalmol., 107, 75.
Jabs, D. A., Newman, C., de Bustros, S., and Polk, B. F. (1987) Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with ganciclovir, Ophthalmology, 94, 824.
Palestine, A. G., Stevens, G., Jr., Lane, H. C., et al. (1986) Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with dihydroxy propoxymethyl guanine, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 101, 95.
Rosecan, L. R., Stahl-Bayliss, C. M., Kalman, C. M., and Laskin, O. L. (1986) Antiviral therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS with dihydroxy propoxymethyl guanine, Am. J. Ophthal., 101, 405.
Holland, G. N. and Shuler, J. D. (1992) Progression rates of cytomegalovirus retinopathy in ganciclovir-treated and untreated patients, Arch. Ophthalmol., 110, 1435.
Blini, M., Chiama, M., Plebani, A., and Bertoni, G. (1991) Use of intravitreal ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in a child with AIDS, 7th International Conference on AIDS Florence, Italy, June 16–21, (abstract M.B.2369).
Neuwirth, J., Gutman, I., Hofeldt, A. J., et al. (1982) Cytomegalovirus retinitis in a young homosexual male with acquired immunodeficiency, Ophthalmology, 89, 805.
Mar, E. C., Cheng, Y. C., and Huang, E.-S. (1983) Effect of 9-(1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxymethyl)guanine on human cytomegalovirus replication in vitro, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 24, 518.
Kuppermann, B. D., Quiceno, J. I., Flores-Aguilar, M., et al. (1993) Intravitreal ganciclovir concentration after intravenous administration in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis: application for therapy, J. Infect. Dis., 168, 1506.
Smith, I. L., Hong, C., Pilcher, M. L., Shapiro, A. M., Jiles, R. E., and Spector, S. A. (1998) Development of resistant cytomegalovirus genotypes during oral ganciclovir prophylaxis/preemptive therapy, 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [abstract H-120].
Kupperman, B. D., Flores-Aguilar, M., Quiceno, J. I., Rickman, L. S., and Freeman, W. R. (1993) Combination ganciclovir and foscarnet in the treatment of clinically resistant cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Arch. Ophthalmol., 111, 1359.
Flores-Aguilar, M., Kupperman, B. D., and Quiceno, J. I., et al. (1993) Pathophysiology and treatment of clinically resistant cytomegalovirus retinitis, Ophthalmology, 100, 1022.
Dieterich, D. T., Poles, M. A., Lew, E. A., et al. (1993) Concurrent use of ganciclovir and foscarnet to treat cytomegalovirus infection in AIDS patients, J. Infect. Dis., 167, 1184.
Miccioli, C. and Belfort, R., Jr. (2000) Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with an intraocular sustained-release ganciclovir implant, Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res., 33, 779–789.
Williamson, J. C., Virata, S. R., Raasch, R. H., and Kylstra, J. A. (2000) Oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus endophthalmitis after ganciclovir intraocular implant, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 129, 554–555.
Anduze-Faris, B. M., Fillet, A. M., Gozlan, J., et al. (2000) Induction and maintenance therapy of cytomegalovirus central nervous system infection in HIV-infected patients, AIDS, 14, 517–524.
Hochster, H., Dieterch, D., Bozzette, S., et al. (1990) Toxicity of combined ganciclovir and zidovudine for cytomegalovirus disease associated with AIDS, Ann. Intern. Med., 113, 111.
Jacobson, M. A., de Miranda, P., Gordon, S. M., Blum, M. R., Volberding, P., and Mills, J. (1988) Prolonged pancytopenia due to combined ganciclovir and zidovudine therapy, J. Infect. Dis., 158, 489.
Millar, A. B., Miller, R. F., Patou, G., Mindel, A., Marsh, R., and Semple, S. J. G. (1990) Treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis with zidovudine and ganciclovir in patients with AIDS: outcome and toxicity, Genitourin. Med., 66, 156.
Prichard, M. N., Prichard, L. E., Baguley, W. A., Nassiri, M. R., and Shipman, C., Jr. (1991) Three-dimensional analysis of the synergisitic cytotoxicity between ganciclovir and zidovudine, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 35, 1060.
Tian P. Y., Crouch, J. Y., and Hsiung, G. D. (1991) Combined antiviral effect and cytotoxicity of ganciclovir and azidothymidine against cytomegalovirus infection in cultured cells, Antivir. Res. Suppl. 1, 115, abstract 134.
Medina, D. J., Hsiung, G. D., and Mellors, J. W. (1992) Ganciclovir antagonizes the anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activity of zidovudine and didanosine in vitro, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 36, 1127–1130.
Causey, D. (1991) Concomitant ganciclovir and zidovudine treatment for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with HIV infection: an approach to treatment, J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr., 4, 515.
Patel, J. E., Anderson, J. R., Duncombe, A. S., Carrington, D., and Murday, A. (1994) Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor: a new application for cytomegalovirus-induced neutropenia in cardiac allograft recipients, Transplantation, 58, 863–867.
Hardy, D., Spector, S., Polsky, B., et al. (1994) Combination of ganciclovir and granulocyte-macrophage-colony-stimulating factor in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS patients, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 13(Suppl. 2), S34.
Boivin, G. and LeBlanc, R. P. (2000) Clearance of cytomegalovirus viremia after initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy, J. Infect. Dis., 181, 1216–1218.
Macdonald, J. C., Torriani, F. J., Morse, L. S., Karavellas, M. P., Reed, J. B., and Freeman, W. R. (1998) Lack of reactivation of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis after stopping CMV maintenance therapy in AIDS patients with sustained elevations in CD4 T cells in response to highly active antiretroviral therapy, J. Infect. Dis., 177(5), 1182–1187.
O’Sullivan, C. E., Drew, W. L., McMullen, D. J., Miner, R., et al. (1999) Decrease of cytomegalovirus replication in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients after treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy, J. Infect. Dis., 180(3), 847–849.
Casado, J. L., Arrizabalaga, J., and Gutierrez, C. (1999) Risk of cytomegalovirus viremia and disease in HIV-infected patients with protease inhibitor treatment failure, 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, January 31–February 4, [abstract 458].
Arrizabalaga, J., Casado, J. L., Tural, C., et al. (1999) Incidence and risk factors for developing CMV retinitis in HIV-infected patients receiving protease inhibitor therapy, 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, January 31–February 4, [abstract 251].
Deayton, J., Mocroft, A., Wilson, P., Emery, V. C., Johnson, M. A., and Griffiths, P. D. (1998) Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) including protease inhibitors can completely suppress asymptomatic CMV viremia in the absence of specific anti-CMV therapy, 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [abstract I-268].
Verbraak, F. D., Boom, R., Wertheim-van Dillen, P. M., van den Horn, G. J., Kijlstra, A., and de Smet, M. D. (1999) Influence of highly active retroviral therapy on the development of CMV disease in HIV positive patients at high risk for CMV disease, Br. J. Ophthalmol., 83, 1186–1189.
Dunn, J. P. (1999) Discontinuation of maintenance CMV therapy in HAART responders, Hopkins HIV Rep., 11, 5.
Soriano, V., Dona, C., Rodriguez-Rosado, R., Barreiro, P., and Gonzalez-Lahoz, J. (2000) Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy, AIDS, 14, 383–386.
MacDonald, J. C., Karavellas, M. P., Torriano, F. J., et al. (2000) Highly active antiretroviral therapy-related immune recovery in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis, Ophthalmology, 107, 877–882.
Margolis, T. P. (2000) Discontinuation of anticytomegalovirus therapy in patients with HIV infection and cytomegalovirus, Surv. Opthalmol., 44, 455.
Labetoulle, M., Goujard, C., Frau, E., et al. (1999) Cytomegalovirus retinitis in advanced HIV-infected patients treated with protease inhibitors: incidence and outcome over 2 years, J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr., 22, 228–234.
Jouan, M., Saves, M., Tubiana, R., et al. (1999) Restimop (ANRS 078): a prospective multicentre study to evaluate the discontinuation of maintenance therapy for CMV retinitis in HIV patients receiving HAART, 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, January 31–February 4, [abstract 256].
Chiller, T., Park, A., Chiller, K., Skiest, D., and Keiser, P. (1998) HIV protease inhibitor therapy is associated with increased time to relapse and death in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis, 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [abstract I-267].
Whitcup, S. M. (2000) Cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active retroviral therapy [clinical conference], J. Am. Med. Assoc., 283, 653–657.
Maschke, M., Kastrup, O., Esser, S., Ross, B., Hengge, U., and Hufnagel, A. (2000) Incidence and prevalence of neurological disorders associated with HIV since the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 69, 376–380.
Curran, M. and Noble, S. (2001) Valganciclovir, Drugs, 61(8), 1145–1150; discussion: 1151–1152.
Georgiev, V. St. (2003) Cryptosporidium spp. In: Opportunistic Infections: Treatment and Prophylaxis, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 143–157.
Berkowitz, C. D. (1985) AIDS and parasitic infections, including Pneumocystis carinii and cryptosporidiosis, Pediatr. Clin. North Am., 32, 933.
Current, W. L. and Blagburn, B. L. (1991) Cryptosporidium and microsporidia: some closing comments, J. Protozool., 38, 244S.
Current, W. L. and Garcia, L. S. (1991) Cryptosporidiosis, Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 4, 325.
Garcia, L. S. and Current, W. L. (1989) Cryptosporidiosis: clinical features and diagnosis, Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab., 27, 439.
Current, W. L. and Garcia, L. S. (1991) Cryptosporidiosis, Clin. Lab. Med., 11, 873.
Bhan, M. K., Bhandari, N., Bhatnagar, S., and Bahl, R. (1996) Epidemiology and management of persistent diarrhea in children in developing countries, Indian J. Med. Res., 104, 103.
Assefa, T., Mohammed, H., Abebe, A., Abebe, S., and Tafesse, B. (1996) Cryptosporidiosis in children seen at the children’s clinic of Yakatit 12 Hospital, Addis Abeba, Ethiop. Med. J., 34, 43.
Fraser, D., Naggan, L., El-On, J., Deckelbaum, R. J., and Dagan, R. (1996) Risk factors for symptomatic and asymptomatic Cryptosporidium (CR) and Giardia lamblia (GL) infection in a cohort of Israeli Bedouin children, 36th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [abstract K153].
Neill, M. A., Rice, S. K., Ahmad, N. V., and Flanigan, T. P. (1996) Cryptosporidiosis: an unrecognized cause of diarrhea in elderly hospitalized patients, Clin. Infect. Dis., 22, 168.
Gerba, C. P., Rose, J. B., and Haas, C. N. (1996) Sensitive populations: who is at the greatest risk? Int. J. Food Microbiol., 30, 113.
Poirot, J. L., Deluol, A. M., Antoine, M., et al. (1996) Broncho-pulmonary cryptosporidiosis in four HIV-infected patients, J. Eukariot. Microbiol., 43, 78S.
Farthing, M. J., Kelly, M. P., and Veitch, A. M. (1996) Recently recognized microbial enteropathies and HIV infection, J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 37(Suppl. B), 61.
Greenberg, P. D., Koch, J., and Cello, J. P. (1996) Diagnosis of Cryptosporidium parvum in patients with severe diarrhea and AIDS, Dig. Dis. Sci., 41, 2286.
Manatsathit, S., Tansupaswaskul, S., Wanachiwanawin, D., et al. (1996) Causes of chronic diarrhea in patients with AIDS in Thailand: a prospective clinical and microbiological study, J. Gastroenterol., 31, 533.
Tarimo, D. S., Killewo, J. Z., Minjas, J. N., and Msamanga, G. I. (1996) Prevalence of intestinal parasites in adult patients with enteropathic AIDS in north-eastern Tanzania, East Afr. Med. J., 73, 397.
Ghorpade, M. V., Kulkarni, S. A., and Kulkarni, A. G. (1996) Cryptosporidium, Isospora and Strongyloides in AIDS , Natl. Med. J. India, 9, 201.
Lanjewar, D. N., Rodrigues, C., Saple, D. G., Hira, S. K., and DuPont, H. L. (1996) Cryptosporidium, Isospora and Strongyloides in AIDS, Natl. Med. J. India, 9, 17.
Dieng, T., Ndir, O., Diallo, S., Coll-Seck, A. M., and Dieng, Y. (1994) Prevalence of Cryptosporidium sp. and Isospora belli in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in Dakar (Senegal), Dakar Med., 39, 121.
Gunthard, M., Meister, T., Luthy, R., and Weber, R. (1996) Intestinal cryptosporidiosis in HIV infection: clinical features, course and therapy, Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr., 121, 686.
Moolsart, P., Eampokalap, B., Ratanasrithong, M., Kanthasing, P., Tansupaswaskul, S., and Tanchanpong, C. (1995) Cryptosporidiosis in HIV infected patients in Thailand, Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health, 26, 335.
Esfandiari, A., Jordan, W. C., and Brown, C. P. (1995) Prevalence of enteric parasitic infection among HIV-infected attendees of an inner city AIDS clinic, Cell. Mol. Biol. (Noisy-le-Grand), 41(Suppl. 1), S19.
Lopez-Velez, R., Tarazona, R., Garcia Camacho, A. et al. (1995) Intestinal and extraintestinal cryptosporidiosis in AIDS patients, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 14, 677.
Moon, H. W. and Woodmansee, D. B. (1986) Cryptosporidiosis, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 189, 643.
Angus, K. W. (1983) Cryptosporidiosis in man, domestic animals and birds: a review, J. R. Soc. Med., 76, 62.
Forgacs, P., Tarshis, A., Ma, P., et al. (1983) Intestinal and bronchial cryptosporidiosis in an immunodeficient homosexual man, Ann. Intern. Med., 99, 793.
Guarda, L. A., Stein, S. A., Cleary, K. A., and Ordonez, N. G. (1983) Human cryptosporidiosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome, Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med., 107, 562.
Pitlik, S. D., Fainstein, V., Rios, A., Guarda, L., Mansell, P. W. A., and Hersh, E. M. (1983) Cryptosporidial cholecystitis, N. Engl. J. Med., 308, 967.
Blumberg, R. S., Kelsey, P., Perrone, T., Dickersin, R., Laguaglia, M., and Ferruci, J. (1984) Cytomegalovirus- and Cryptosporidium-associated acalculous gangrenous cholesystitis, Am. J. Med., 76, 1118.
French, A. L., Beaudet, L. M., Benator, D. A., Levy, C. S., Kassa, M., and Orenstein, J. M. (1995) Cholecystectomy in patients with AIDS: clinicopathologic correlations in 107 cases, Clin. Infect. Dis., 21, 852.
Mifsud, A. J., Bell, D., and Shafi, M. S. (1994) Respiratory cryptosporidiosis as a presenting feature of AIDS, J. Infect., 28, 227.
Talens, A., Montoya, E., Cubells, M. L., et al. (1996) Acute pancreatitis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Rev. Esp. Enferm. Dig., 88, 155.
Rose, J. B. (1988) Occurrence and significance of Cryptosporidium in the water, J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 80, 53.
Dworkin, M. S., Goldman, D. P., Wells, T. G., Kobayashi, J. M., and Herwaldt, B. L. (1996) Cryptosporidiosis in Washington State: an outbreak associated with well water, J. Infect. Dis., 174, 1372.
Kuroki, T., Watanabe, Y., Asai, Y., et al. (1996) An outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis in Kanagawa, Japan, Kansenshogaku Zasshi, 70, 132.
Osewe, P., Addiss, D. G., Blair, K. A., Hightower, A., Kamb, M. L., and Davis, J. P. (1996) Cryptosporidiosis in Wisconsin: a case-control study of post-outbreak transmission, Epidemiol. Infect., 117, 297.
Addiss, D. G., Pond, R. S., Remshak, M., Juranek, D. D., Stokes, S., and Davis, J. P. (1996) Reduction of risk of watery diarrhea with point-of-use water filters during a massive outbreak of waterborne Cryptosporidium infection in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1993, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 54, 549.
Goldstein, S. T., Juranek, D. D., Ravenholt, O., et al. (1996) Cryptosporidiosis: an outbreak associated with drinking water despite state-of-the-art water treatment, Ann. Intern. Med., 124, 459.
Kramer, M. H., Herwaldt, B. L., Craun, G. F., Calderon, R. L., and Juranek, D. D. (1996) Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks – United States, 1993–1994, Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. [CDC Surveil. Summ.], 45, 1.
Bridgman, S. A., Robertson, R. M., Syed, O., Speed, N., Andrews, N., and Hunter, P. R. (1995) Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a disinfected groundwater supply, Epidemiol. Infect., 115, 555.
Mackenzie, W. R., Kazmierczak, J. J., and Davis, J. P. (1995) An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a resort swimming pool, Epidemiol. Infect., 115, 545.
Fayer, R. and Nerad, T. (1996) Effects of low temperature on viability of Cryptosporidium parvumoocysts, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 62, 1431.
Fayer, R., Trout, J., and Nerad, T. (1996) Effects of a wide range of temperatures on the infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, J. Eukaryot. Microbiol., 43, 64S.
Shepherd, K. M. and Wyn-Jones, A. P. (1996) An evaluation of methods for the simulateneous detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from water, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 62, 1317–1322.
Drozd, C. and Schwartzbrod, J. (1996) Hydrophobic and electrostatic cell surface properties of Cryptosporidium parvum, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 62, 1227–1232.
Rochelle, P. A., Ferguson, D. M., Handojo, T. J., De Leon, R., Stewart, M. H., and Wolfe, R. L. (1996) Development of a rapid detection procedure for Cryptosporidium, using in vitro cell culture combined with PCR, J. Eukaryot. Microbiol., 43, 72S.
Abrahamsen, M. S., Templeton, T. J., Enomoto, S., Abrahante, J. A., et al. (2004) Complete genome sequence of the Apicomplexan, Cryptosporidium parvum, Science, 304(5669), 441–445.
Anderson, B. C., Donndelinger, T., Wilkins, R. M., and Smith, J. (1982) Cryptosporidiosis in a veterinary student, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 180, 498.
Baxby, D., Hart, C. A., and Blundell, N. (1985) Shedding of oocysts by immunocompetent individuals with cryptosporidiosis, J. Hyg., 95, 708.
Brasseur, P., Lemeteil, D., and Mallet, E. (1987) La cryptosporidiose chez l’enfant immunocompetent, Presse Med., 16, 177.
Current, W. L., Reese, N. C., Ernest, J. V., Bailey, W. S., Heyman, M. B., and Weinstein, W. M. (1983) Cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent and immunodeficient persons, N. Engl. J. Med., 308, 1252.
Laurent, F., McCole, D., Eckmann, L., and Kagnoff, M. F. (1999) Pathogenesis of Cryptosporidium parvum infection, Microbes Infect., 1, 141–148.
Navin, T. R. and Juranek, D. D. (1984) Cryptosporidiosis: clinical, epidemiologic and parasitologic review, Rev. Infect. Dis., 6, 313.
Reese, N. C., Current, W. L., Ernest, J. V., and Bailey, W. S. (1982) Cryptosporidiosis of man and calf: a case report and results of experimental infections in mice and rats, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 31, 226.
Casemore, D. P. (1988) The epidemiology of human cryptosporidiosis. In: Cryptosporidiosis, Proc. 1st Int. Workshop, Edinburgh, U.K. (Angus, K. W. and Blewett, D. A., eds.), Moredun Research Institute Edinuburgh, p. 65.
Malla, N., Sehgal, R., Ganguly, N. K., and Mahajan, R. C. (1989) Cryptosporidiosis – the Indian scene, Indian J. Pediatr., 56, 6.
Hoepelman, A. I. (1996) Current therapeutic approaches to cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised patients, J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 37, 871.
Colford, J. M., Jr., Tager, I. B., Hirozawa, A. M., Lemp, G. F., Aragon, T., and Petersen, C. (1996) Cryptosporidiosis among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: factors related to symptomatic infection and survival, Am. J. Epidemiol., 144, 807.
Heyworth, M. F. (1996) Parasitic diseases in immunocompromised hosts: cryptosporidiosis, isosporiasis, and strongyloidasis, Gastroeneterol. Clin. North Am., 25, 691.
Ballal, M., Prabhu, T., Chandran, A., and Shivananda, P. G. (1999) Cryptosporidium and Isospora belli diarrhea in immunocompromised hosts, Indian J. Cancer., 36, 38–42.
Issacs, D. (1985) Cryptosporidium and diarrhea, Arch. Dis. Child., 60, 608.
Malenbranche, R., Arnous, E., Guerin, J. M., et al. (1983) Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome with severe gastrointestinal manifestations, Lancet, 2, 873.
Vakil, N. B., Schwartz, S. M., Buggy, B. P., et al. (1996) Biliary cryptosporidiosis in HIV-infected people after waterborne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Milwaukee, N. Engl. J. Med., 334, 19.
Lasser, K. H., Lewin, K. J., and Ryning, F. W. (1979) Cryptosporidial enteritis in a patient with congenital hypogammaglobulinaemia, Hum. Pathol., 10, 234.
Sloper, K. S., Dourmashkin, R. R., Bird, R. B., Slavin, G., and Webster, A. D. B. (1982) Chronic malabsorption due to cryptosporidiosis in a child with immunoglobulin deficiency, Gut, 23, 80.
Tzipori, S., Robertson, D., and Chapman, C. (1986) Remission of diarrhea due to cryptosporidiosis in an immunodeficient child treated with hyperimmune bovine colostrums, Br. Med. J., 293, 1276.
Kocoshis, S. A., Cibull, M. L., Davis, T. E., Hinton, J. T., Seip, M., and Banwell, J. G. (1984) Intestinal and pulmonary cryptosporidiosis in an infant with severe combined immunoglobulin deficiency, J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr., 3, 149.
Miller, R. A., Holmberg, R. E., and Clausen, C. R. (1983) Life-threatening diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium in a child undergoing therapy for acute lymphocytic leukaemia, J. Pediatr., 103, 256.
Lewis, I. J., Hart, C. A., and Baxby, D. (1985) Diarrhoea due to Cryptosporidium in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, Arch. Dis. Child., 60, 60–62.
Foot, A. B., Oakhill, A., and Mott, M. G. (1990) Cryptosporidiosis and acute leukaemia, Arch. Dis. Child., 65, 236.
Gentile, G., Venditti, M., Micozzi, A., et al. (1991) Cryptosporidiosis in patients with hematologic malignancies, Rev. Infect. Dis., 13, 842.
Weisburger, W. R., Hutcheon, D. F., Yardley, J. H., Roche, J. C., Hillis, W. D., and Charache, P. (1979) Cryptosporidiosis in an immunosuppressed renal-transplant recipient with IgA deficiency, Am. J. Clin. Pathol., 72, 473.
Griffiths, J. K. (1988) Treatment for AIDS-associated cryptosporidiosis, J. Infect. Dis., 178, 915–916.
Connolly, G. M., Dryden, M. S., Shanson, D. C., and Gizzard, B. G. (1988) Cryptosporidial diarrhea in AIDS and its treatment, Gut, 29, 593.
Soave, R. and Johnson, W. D., Jr., (1988) Cryptosporidium and Isospora belli infections, J. Infect. Dis., 157, 225.
Hudson, R. (1989) No treatment for cryptosporidiosis in AIDS patients, J. Am. Osteopath., 89, 716.
Soave, R. (1990) Treatment strategies for cryptosporidiosis, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 616, 442–451.
Georgiev, V. St. (1993) Opportunistic infections: treatment and developmental therapeutics of cryptosporidiosis and isosporiasis, Drug Dev. Res., 28, 445–459.
Sterling, C. R. (2000) Cryptosporidiosis: the treatment dilemma, J. Med. Microbiol., 49, 207–208.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1982) Cryptosporidiosis: assessment of chemotherapy of males with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 31, 589.
U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS) and Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) (2000) 1999 USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus, Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol., 8, 5–74.
Holmberg, S. D., Moorman, A. C., Von Bargen, J. C., et al. (1998) Possible effectiveness of clarithromycin and rifabutin for cryptosporidiosis chemoprophylaxis in HIV disease, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 279, 384–386.
Brasseur, P., Lemeteil, D., and Ballet, J. J.(1991), Anti-cryptosporidial activity screened with an immunosuppressed rat model, J. Protozool., 38, 230S.
Gross, T. L., Wheat, J., Bartlett, M., and O’Connor, K. W. (1986) AIDS and multiple system involvement with Cryptosporidium, Am. J. Gastroenterol., 8, 456.
Pilla, A. M., Rybak, M. J., and Chandrasekar, P. H. (1987) Spiramycin in the treatment of cryptosporidiosis, Pharmacotherapy, 7, 188.
Centers for Disease Control (1984) Update: treatment of cryptosporidiosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep., 33, 117.
Portnoy, D., Whiteside, M. E., Buckley, E., and MacLeod, C. L. (1984) Treatment of intestinal cryptosporidiosis with spiramycin, Ann. Intern. Med., 101, 202.
Decaux, G. M. and Devroeda, C. (1978) Acute colitis related to spiramycin, Lancet, 2, 993.
Moskovitz, B. L., Stanton, T. L., and Kusmierek, J. J. (1988) Spiramycin therapy for cryptosporidial diarrhoea in immunocompromised patients, J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 22 (Suppl. B), 189.
Collier, A. C., Miller, P. A., and Meyers, J. D. (1984) Cryptosporidiosis after marrow transplantation: person-to-person transmission and treatment with spiramycin, Ann. Intern. Med., 101, 205.
Mead, G. M., Sweetenham, J. W., Ewins, D. L., Furlong, M., and Lowes, J. A. (1986) Intestinal cryptosporidiosis: a complication of cancer treatment, Cancer Treat. Rep., 70, 769.
Fafard, J. and Lalonde, R. (1990) Long-standing symptomatic cryptosporidiosis in a normal man: clinical response to spiramycin, J. Clin. Gastroenterol., 12, 190.
Galvano, G., Cattaneo, G., and Reverso-Giovantin, E. (1993) Chronic diarrhea due to Cryptosporidium: the efficacy of spiramycin treatment, Pediatr. Med. Chir., 15, 297.
Wilmsmeyer, B., Dopfer, R., Hoppe, J. E., and Niethammer, D. (1993) Cryptosporidium enteritis, Monatsschr. Kinderheilkd., 141, 130.
Descotes, J., Vial, T., Delattre, D., and Evreux, J.-C. (1988) Spiramycin: safety in man, J. Antimicrob. Chemother, 22, 207.
Kotler, D. P., Gaetz, H. P., Lange, M., Klein, E. B., and Holt, P. R. (1984) Enteropathy associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Ann. Intern. Med., 101, 421.
Saez-Llorens, X., Odio, C. M., Umana, M. A., and Morales, M. V. (1989) Spiramycin vs. placebo for treatment of acute diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 8, 136.
Saez-Llorens, X. (1989) Spiramycin for treatment of Cryptosporidium enteritis, J. Infect. Dis., 160, 342.
Connolly, G. M., Dryden, M. S., Shanson, D. C., and Gazzard, B. G. (1988) Cryptosporidial diarrhoea in AIDS and its treatment, Gut, 29, 593.
Casemore, D.P., Sands, R. L., and Curry, A. (1985) Cryptosporidium species: a “new” human pathogen, J. Clin. Pathol., 38, 1321.
Woolf, G. M., Townsend, M., and Guyatt, G. (1987) Treatment of cryptosoridiosis with spiramycin in AIDS: an “N of 1,” J. Clin. Gastroenterol., 9, 632.
Wittenberg, D. F., Miller, N. M., and van den Ende, J. (1989) Spiramycin is not effective in treating Cryptosporidium diarrhea in infants: results of a double-blind rendomized trial, J. Infect. Dis., 159, 131.
Wittenberg, D. F. (1989), Spiramycin for treatment of Cryptosporidium enteritis, J. Infect. Dis., 160, 342.
Berkowitz, C. D. and Seidel, J. S. (1985) Spontaneous resolution of cryptosporidiosis in a child with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Am. J. Dis. Child., 139, 967.
Current, W. L. (1986) Cryptosporidium: Its Biology and Potential for Environmental Transmission [CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control, vol. 17], p. 21.
Weikel, C., Lazenby, A., Belitsos, P., McDewitt, M., Fleming, H. E. Jr., and Barbacci, M. (1991) Intestinal injury associated with spiramycin therapy of Cryptosporidium infection in AIDS, J. Protozool., 38, 147S.
Soave, R. (1988) Cryptosporidiosis and isosporiasis in patients with AIDS, Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am., 2, 485.
Chen, X. M., Keithly, J. S., Paya, C. V., and LaRusso, N. F. (2002) Cryptosporidiosis, N. Engl. J. Med., 346(22), 1723–1731 [comments in N. Engl. J. Med., 347(16), 1287 (2002)].
Dupont, C., Bougnoux, M. E., Turner, L., Rouveix, E., and Dorra, M. (1996) Microbiological findings about pulmonary cryptosporidiosis in two AIDS patients, J. Clin. Microbiol., 34, 227.
Hicks, P., Zwiener, R. J., Squires, J., and Savell, V. (1996) Azithromycin therapy for Cryptosporidium parvum infection in four children infected with human immunodeficiency virus, J. Pediatr., 129, 297.
Vargas, S. L., Shenep, J. L., Flynn, P. M., Pui, C. H., Santana, V. M., and Hughes, W. T. (1993) Azithromycin for treatment of severe Cryptosporidium diarrhea in two children with cancer, J. Pediatr., 123, 154.
Jordan, W. C. (1996) Clarithromycin prophylaxis against Cryptosporidium enteritis in patients with AIDS, J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 88, 425.
Holmberg, S. D., Moorman, A. C., Von Bargen, J. C., Palella, F. J., Loveless, M. O., and Navin, T. R. (1997) Apparent chemoprophylaxis of cryptosporidiosis with clarithromycin and rifabutin, 4th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections,Washington, D.C., January 22–26 [191, abstract 685].
Tzipori, S., Rand, W., Griffiths, J., Widmer, G., and Crabb, J. (1994) Evaluation of an animal model system for cryptosporidiosis: therapeutic efficacy of paromomycin and hyperimmune bovine colostrum-immunoglobulin, Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol., 1, 450.
Cirioni, O., Giacometti A., Balducci, M., Drenaggi, D., Del Prete, M. S., and Scallise, G. (1995) Anticryptosporidial activity of paromomycin, J. Infect. Dis., 172, 1169.
Verdon, R., Polianski, J., Gaudebout, C., and Pocidalo, J. J. (1995) Paromomycin for cryptosporidiosis in AIDS, J. Infect. Dis., 171, 1070;1071.
Tsipori, S., Griffiths, J., and Theodus, C. (1995) Paromomycin treatment against cryptosporidiosis in patients with AIDS, J. Infect. Dis., 171, 1069;1071.
Mancassola, R., Reperant, J. M., Naciri, M., and Chartier, C. (1995) Chemoprophylaxis of Cryptosporidium parvum infection with paromomycin in kids and immunological study, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 39, 75.
Jimenez-Beatty Navarro, M. D., de la Fuente Aguado, J., Sopena Arguelles, B., and Martinez Vazquez, C. (1995) Paromomycin in the treatment of cryptosporidiosis, Rev. Clin. Esp., 195, 62.
Healey, M. C., Yang, S., Rasmussen, K. R., Jackson, M. K., and Du, C. (1995) Therapeutic efficacy of paromomycin in immunosuppressed adult mice infected with Cryptosporidium parvum, J. Parasitol., 81, 114.
Mohri, H., Fujita, H., Asakura, Y., Katoh, K., Okamoto, R., Tanabe, J., Harano, H., Noguchi, T., Inayama, Y., and Amano, T. (1995) Case report: inhalation therapy of paromomycin is effective for respiratory infection and hypoxia by cryptosporidium with AIDS, Am. J. Med. Sci., 309, 60.
Verdon, R., Polianski, J., Gaudebout, C., Marche, C., Garry, L., and Pocidalo, J.-J. (1994) Evaluation of curative anticryptosporidial activity of paromomycin in a dexamethasone-treated rat model, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 38, 1681.
Scaglia, M., Atzori, C., Marchetti, G., Orso, M., Maserati, R., Orani, A., Novati, S., and Olliaro, P. (1994) Effectiveness of aminosidine (paromomycin) sulfate in chronic Cryptosporidium diarrhea in AIDS patients: an open, uncontrolled, prospective clinical trial, J. Infect. Dis., 170, 1349.
Rehg, J. E. (1994) A comparison of anticryptosporidial activity of paromomycin with that of other aminoglycosides and azithromycin in immunosuppressed rats, J. Infect. Dis., 170, 934.
Youssef, M. M., Hammam, S. M., Abou Samra, L. M., and Khalifa, A. M. (1994) Aminosidine sulphate in experimental cryptosporidiosis, J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol., 24, 239.
White, A. C. Jr., Chappell, C. L., Hayat, C. S., Kimball, K. T., Flanigan, T. P., and Goodgame, R. W. (1994) Paromomycin for cryptosporidiosis in AIDS: a prospective, double-blind trial, J. Infect. Dis., 170, 419.
Forester, G., Sidhom, O., Nahass, R., and Andavolu, R. (1994) AIDS-associated cryptosporidiosis with gastric structure and a therapeutic response to paromomycin, Am. J. Gastroenterol., 89, 1096.
Wallace, M. R., Nguyen, M. T., and Newton, J. A., Jr. (1993) Use of paromomycin for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis in patients with AIDS, Clin. Infect. Dis., 17, 1070.
Anand, A. (1993) Cryptosporidiosis in patients with AIDS, Clin. Infect. Dis., 17, 297.
Fichtenbaum, C. J., Ritchie, D. J., and Powderly, W. G. (1993) Use of paromomycin for treatment of cryptosporidiosis in patients with AIDS, Clin. Infect. Dis., 16, 298.
Goodgame, R. W., Genta, R. M., White, A. C., and Chappell, C. L. (1993) Intensity of infection in AIDS-associated cryptosporidiosis, J. Infect. Dis., 167, 704.
Hewitt, R. G., Yiannoutsos, C. T., Carey, J., Geiseler, P. J., Soave, R., Rosenberg, R., Vazquez, G. J., Wheta, J., Fass, R. J., Higgs, E. S., Antoninjevic, Z., Walawander, A. L., Flanigan, T., and Bender, J. (1997) A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of paromomycin for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis in patients with advanced HIV disease and CD4 counts under 150 (ACTG 192), 4th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Washington, D.C., January 22–26 [65, abstract 4].
Bowers, M. (1998) Nitazoxanide for cryptosporidial diarrhea, BETA (April), 30–31.
Bornhoeft, M. A. (1998) Cryptosporidiosis gets a new treatment, Body Posit., XI(3), 13.
James. J. S. (1998) NTZ: advisory committee votes against approval, AIDS Treat. News, (No. 295), 7.
James. J. S. (1998) Prospective case series in clinical trial design–proposal, and NTZ example, AIDS Treat. News, (No. 296), 5–6.
Baker. R. (1998) FDA panel rejects drug for cryptosporidial diarrhea. Food and Drug Administration, BETA (July), 7.
Roehr, B. (1998) Another failed promise? NTZ gets the nix, J. Int. Assoc. Physicians AIDS Care, 4, 26–27; 29.
Learned, J. (1998) NTZ–-still promising but Unimed walks, Notes Undergr. (No. 37), 10.
Cadman, J. (1998) Diarrhea drug rejection raises a ruckus, GMHC Treat Issues, 12, 1–3.
Amenta, M., Dalle Nogare, E. R., Colomba, C., Prestileo, T. S., Di Lorenzo, F., Fundaro, S., Colomba, A., and Ferrieri, A. (1999) Intestinal protozoa in HIV- infected patients: effect of rifaximin. Cryptosporidium parvum and Blastocystis hominis infections, J. Chemother., 11, 391–395.
Morrison, L. (1998) Cryptosporidiosis. In: The OI Report: A Critical Review of the Treatment 8 Prophylaxis of AIDS-Related Opportunistic Infections (OIs), Treatment Action Group (http://aidsinfonyc.org/tag/comp/ois98/index.html).
Soave, R., Dieterich, D., Kotler, D., Gassyuk, E., Tierney, A. R., Liebes, L., and Legendre, R. (1990) Oral diclazuril therapy for cryptosporidiosis, 6th International Conference on AIDS, San Francisco, CA, June 20–24 [6: 252, abstract Th.B 520].
Walach , C., Loeb, M., Phillips, J., Salit, I., Rachlis, A., Fong, I., and Walmsley, S. (1993) Use of letrazuril in refractory cryptosporidiosis in AIDS, 9th International Conference on AIDS, Berlin, Germany, June 6–11 [9: 380 abstract PO-B10-1472].
Sheppard, M., Shapiro, B., Pimstone, B., Kronheim, M. B., and Gregory, M. (1979) The metabolic clearance and plasma half disappearance time of exogenous somatostatin in man, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 49, 50–53.
Bauer, W., Briner, U., Doepfner, W., Haller, R., Huguenin, R., Marbach, P., Petcher, T. J., and Pless, J. (1982) SMS 201–995: a very potent and selective octapeptide analogue of somatostatin with prolonged action, Life Sci., 31, 1133.
Longnecker, S. M. (1988) Somatostatin and octreotide: literature review and description of therapeutic activity in pancreatic neoplasia, Drug Intell. Clin. Pharm., 22, 99–106.
Gaginella, T. S. and O’Dorisio, T. M. (1988) Octreotide: entering the new era of peptodomimetic therapy, Drug Intell. Clin. Pharm., 22, 154.
Santangelo, W. C., O’Dorisio, T. M., Kim, J. G., Severino, G., and Krejs, G. (1986) VIPoma syndrome: effect of a synthetic somatostatin analogue, Scand. J. Gastroenterol., 21, 187.
Gorden, P. (1989) Somatostatin and somatostatin analogue (SMS 201–995) in the treatment of hormone-secreting tumors of the pituitary and gastrointestinal tract and non-neoplastic diseases of the gut, Ann. Intern. Med., 110, 35.
Katz, M. D., Erstad, B. L., and Rose, C. (1988) Treatment of severe Cryptosporidium-related diarrhea with octreotide in a patient with AIDS, Drug Intell. Clin. Pharm., 22, 134.
Cello, J. P., Grendell, J. H., Basuk, P., Simon, D., Weiss, L., Rood, R., Wilcox, C., Forsmark, C., Read, A., Satow, J., Weikel, C., and Beaumont, C. (1990) Controlled clinical trial of octreotride (sandostatin) for refractory AIDS-associated diarrhea, Gastroenterology, 98, A163.
Fanning, M., Monte, M., Sutherland, L. R., Broadhead, M., Murphy, G. F., and Harris, A. G. (1991) Pilot study of sandostatin (octreotide) therapy of refractory HIV-associated diarrhea, Dig. Dis. Sci., 36, 476.
Moroni, M., Esposito, R., Cernuschi, M., Franzetti, F., Carosi, G. P., and Fiori, G. P. (1993) Treatment of AIDS-related refractory diarrhoea with octreotide, Digestion, 54(Suppl. 1), 30.
Crawford, F. G. and Vermund, S. H. (1988) Human cryptosporidiosis, CRC. Crit. Rev. Microbiol., 16, 113.
Nelson, J. A., Wiley, C. A., Reynolds-Kohler, C., Reese, C. E., Margaretten, W., and Levy, J. A. (1988) Human immunodeficiency virus detected in bowel epithelium from patients with gastrointestinal symptoms, Lancet, 1, 259.
Levy, J. A., Margaretten, W., and Nelson, J. (1989) Detection of HIV in enterochromaffin cells in the rectal mucosa of an AIDS patient, Am. J. Gastroenterol., 84, 787.
Bigornia, E., Simon, D., Weiss, L., Tanowitz, H., Jones, J., Wittner, M., and Lyman, W. (1990) Detection of HIV-1 viral protein and genomic sequences in enterochromaffin cells of HIV-1-seropositive patients, Am. J. Gastroenterol., 85, 1264.
Kreinik, G., Burstein, O., Landor, M., Bernstein, L., Weiss, L. M., and Wittner, M. (1991) Successful management of intractable cryptosporidial diarrhea with intravenous octreotide, a somatostatin analogue, AIDS, 5, 765–767.
Ruff, M. R., Martin, B. M., Guins, E. I., Farrar, W. L., and Pert, C.B. (1987) CD4 receptor-binding peptides that block HIV infectivity cause human monocyte chemotaxis: relationship to vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, FEBS Lett., 211, 17.
Gaginella, T. S., Hubel, K. A., and O’Dorisio, T. M. (1982) Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and intestinal chloride secretion. In: Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (Said, I., ed.), Raven Press, New York, p. 211.
Friedman, L. S. (1991) Somatostatin therapy for AIDS diarrhea: muddy waters, Gastroenterology, 101, 1446.
Kotler, D. P. (1987) Preliminary observations of the effect of cow’s milk globulin upon intestinal cryptosporidiosis in AIDS, 3rd International Conference on AIDS, Washington D.C., January 22–26, abstract.
Saxon, A. and Weinstein, W. (1987) Oral administration of bovine colostrum anti- cryptosporidia antibody fails to alter the course of human cryptosporidiosis, J. Parasitol., 73, 413.
Anonymous (1998) Jarrow formulas: “colostrums specific” for cryprosporidiosis, Posit. Health News, (17), 22.
Tzipori, S., Robertson, D., Chapman, C., and White, L. (1987) Chronic cryptosporidial diarrhoea and hyperimmune cow colostrum, Lancet, 2, 344.
Ungar, B. L. P., Ward, D. J., Fayer, R., and Quinn, C. A. (1990) Cessation of Cryptosporidium-associated diarrhea in an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patient after treatment with hyperimmune bovine colostrum, Gastroenterology, 98, 486.
Nord, J., Ma, P., DiJohn, D., Tzipori, S., and Tacket, C.O. (1990) Treatment with bovine hyperimmune colostrum of cryptosporidial diarrhea in AIDS patients, AIDS, 4, 581.
Mietens, C., Keinhorst, H., Hilpert, H., Gerber, H., Amster, H., and Pahud, J. J. (1979) Treatment of infantile E. coli gastroenteritis with specific bovine anti-E. coli milk immunoglobulins, Eur. J. Pediatr., 132, 239.
Brussow, H., Hilpert, H., Walther, I., Sidoti, J., Mietens, C., and Bachmann, P. (1987) Bovine milk immunoglobulin for passive immunity to infantile rotavirus gastroenteritis, J. Clin. Microbiol., 25, 982.
Hilpert, H., Brussow, H., Mietens, C., Sidoti, J., Lerner, L., and Werchau, H. (1987) Use of bovine milk concentrate containing antibody to rotavirus to treat rotavirus gastroenteritis in infants, J. Infect. Dis., 156, 158.
Tacket, C. O., Losonsky, G., Link, H., Hoany, Y., Guesry, P., Hilpert, H., and Levine, M. M. (1988) Protection by milk immunoglobulin concentrate against oral challenge with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, N. Engl. J. Med., 318, 1240.
Perryman, L. E., Riggs, M. W., Mason, P. H., and Fayer, R. (1990) Kinetics of Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoite neutralization by monoclonal antibodies, immune bovine serum, and immune bovine colostral antibodies, Infect. Immun., 58, 257.
McMeeking, A., Borkowsky, W., Klesius, P. H., Bonk, S., Holzman, R. S., and Lawrence, H. S. (1990) A controlled trial of bovine dialyzable leukocyte extract for cryptosporidiosis in patients with AIDS, J. Infect. Dis., 161, 108.
Louie, E., Borkowsky, W., Klesius, P. H., Haynes, T. B., Gordon, S., Bonk, S., and Lawrence, H. S. (1987) Treatment of cryptosporidiosis with oral bovine transfer factor, Clin. Imunol. Immunopathol., 44, 329.
Borkowsky, W. and Lawrence, H. S. (1983) Antigen-specific inducer factor in human leukocyte dialysates: a product of T H cells which binds to anti-V region and anti-Ia region antibodies. In: Immunology of Transfer Factor (Kirkpatrick, C. H., Burger, D. R., and Lawrence, H. S., eds.), Academic Press, New York, p. 75.
Jeter, W. S., Kibler, R., Soli, T. C., and Stephens, C. A. (1979) Oral administration of bovine and human dyalizable transfer factor to human volunteers. In: Immune Regulators in Transfer Factor(Kahn, A., Kirkpatrick, C. H., and Hill, N. O., eds.), Academic Press, New York, p. 451.
Lawrence, H. S. (1974) Transfer factor in cellular immunity, Harvey Lecture Series 68, Academic Press, New York, p. 239.
Schulkind, M. L. and Ayoub, E. M. (1980) Transfer factor and its clinical applications. In: Advances in Pediatrics (Barness, L. A., ed.), Year Book Medical Publishers, Chicago, IL, p. 89.
Jones, J. F., Jeter, W. S., Fulginiti, V. A., Munnich, L. L., Pritchett, R. F., and Wedgwood, R. J. (1991) Treatment of childhood combined Epstein-Barr virus/cytomegalovirus infection with oral bovine transfer factor, Lancet, 2, 122.
Klesius, P. H. and Kristensen, F. (1977) Bovine transfer factor: effect on bovine and rabbit coccidiosis, Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 7, 240.
Klesius, P. H., Quals, D. F., Elston, A. L., and Fudenberg, H. H. (1987) Effects of bovine transfer factor (TFd) in mouse coccidiosis (Eimeria ferrisi), Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 10, 214.
Okhuysen, P., Robinson, P., Watson, V., Actor, J., Lewis, D., Lahoti, S., Cron, S., Shahab, I., Chappell, C., and White, A. C., Jr. (1999) Intestinal IL-15 and interferon-gamma (IFNgamma) in cryptosporidiosis, 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections., Chicago, IL, January 31–February 4 [113, abstract 243].
Kern, P., Toy, J., and Dietrich, M. (1985) Preliminary clinical observations with recombinant interleukin-2 in patients with AIDS or LAS, Blut, 50, 1.
Donahue, J. H., Resenstein, M., Chang, A. E., Lotze, M. T., Robb, R. J., and Rosenberg, S. A. (1984) The systemic administration of purified interleukin 2 enhances the ability of sensitized murine lymphocytes to cure a disseminated syngeneic lymphoma, J. Immunol., 132, 2123.
Ruscetti, F. W. and Gallo, R. C. (1981) Human T-lymphocyte growth factor: regulation of growth and function of T lymphocytes, Blood, 57, 379.
Wagner, H., Kronke, M., Solbach, W., Scheurich, P., Rollinghoff, M., and Pfizenmaier, K. (1982) Murine T cell subsets and interleukins: relationships between cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells and accessory cells, Clin. Haematol., 11, 607.
Pearlstein, K. T., Palladino, M. A., Welte, K., and Vilcek, J. (1983) Purified human interleukin-2 enhances induction of immune interferon, Cell Immunol., 80, 1.
Capetti, A., Bonfanti, P., Rizzardini, G., and Milazzo, F. (1996) Can rHuGM-CSF help treating drug-resistant cryptosporidiosis in AIDS, 36th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, New Orleans, LA, September 15–18 [abstract G33].
Maggi, P., Larocca, A. M., Quarto, M., Serio, G., Brandonisio, O., Angarano, G., and Pastore, G. (2000) Effect of antiretroviral therapy on cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 19, 213–217.
Mileno, M. D., Tashima, K., Farrar, D., Elliot, B. C., Rich, J. D., and Flanigan, T. P. (1997) Resolution of AIDS-related opportunistic infections with addition of protease inhibitor treatment, 4th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections,Washington, D.C., January 22–26 [129, abstract 355].
Benhamou, Y., Bochet, M. V., Carriere, J., Tubiana, R., Anduze-Faris, B., Valantin, M. A., Datry, A., Bricaire, F., and Katlama, C. (1997) Effects of triple antiretroviral therapies including a HIV protease inhibitor on chronic intestinal cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis in HIV-infected patients, 4th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections,Washington, D.C., January 22–26 [130, abstract 357].
Landau, A., Aaron, L., Pialoux, G., Eliaszewicz, M., Zylberberg, H., Poncelet, H., and Dupont, B. (1998) Impact of antiretroviral therapy (ART) on cryptosporidiosis outcome and factors of clinical resistance, 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, February 1–5 [169, abstract 480].
Moore, R. D., Keruly, J. C., and Chaisson, R. E. (1998) Decline in CMV and other opportunistic disease with combination antiretroviral therapy, 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, February 1–5 [113, abstract 184].
Georgiev, V. St. (2003) Toxoplasma gondii. In: Opportunistic Infections: Treatment and Prophylaxis, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, pp. 163–182.
Nguyen, B. T. and Stadtsbaeder, S. (1983) Comparative effects of cotrimoxazole (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole), pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine and spiramycin during avirulent infection with Toxoplsma gondii (Beverley strain) in mice, Br. J. Pharmacol., 79, 923.
Renoult, E., Biava, M. F., Hulin, C., Frimat, L., Hestin, D., and Kessler, M. (1996) Transmission of toxoplasmosis by renal transplant: a report of four cases, Transplant. Proc., 28, 181.
Gallino, A., Maggiorini, M., Kiowski, W., Martin, X., Wunderli, W., Schneider, J., Turina, M., and Follath, F. (1996) Toxoplasmosis in heart transplant recipients, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 15, 389.
Kimball, A. C., Kean, B. H., and Kellner, A. (1965) The risk of transmitting toxoplasmosis by blood transfusion, Transfusion, 5, 447.
Feldman, H. A. (1968) Toxoplasmosis, N. Engl. J. Med., 279, 1370.
Jones, T. C., Kean, B. H., and Kimball, A. C. (1969) Acquired toxoplasmosis, N. Y. State J. Med., 69, 2237.
Bamford, C. R. (1975) Toxoplasmosis mimicking a brain abscess in an adult with treated scleroderma, Neurology, 25, 343.
Levine, N. D. (1973) Protozoan Parasites of Domestic Animals and of Man, Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, MN, p. 294.
Feldman, H. A. (1953) The clinical manifestations and laboratory diagnosis of toxoplasmosis, J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 2, 420, 1953.
Feldman, H. A. and Miller, L. T. (1956) Congenital human toxoplasmosis, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 64, 180.
Conyn-van Spaendonck, M. A., van Knapen, F., and de Jong, P. T. (1990) Congenital toxoplasmosis, Tijdschr. Kindergeneeskd., 58, 227.
Russo, M. and Calanti, B. (1990) Prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis, Clin. Ter., 134, 383.
Couvreur, J., Thulliez, T., Daffos, F., Aufrant, C., Bompart, Y., Goumy, P., and Tournier, G. (1991) 6 cases of toxoplasmosis in twins, Ann. Pediatr. (Paris), 38, 63.
Woods, A.C. (1960) Modern concepts of the etiology of uveitis, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 50, 1170.
O’Connor, G. R. (1975) Ocular toxoplasmosis, Jpn. J. Ophthalmol., 19, 1.
Pivetti-Pezzi, P., Accorinti, M., Tamburi, S., Ciapparoni, V., and Abdulaziz, M. A. (1994) Clinical features of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Ann. Ophthalmol., 26, 73.
Martin-Duverneuil, N., Cordoliani, Y. S., Sola-Martinez, M. T., Miaux, Y., Weill, A., and Chiras, J. (1995) Cerebral toxoplasmosis: neuroradiologic diagnosis and prognostic monitoring, J. Neuroradiol., 22, 196.
Luft, B. J. and Remington, J. S. (1988) Toxoplasmic encephalitis, J. Infect. Dis., 157, 1.
Rostaing, L., Baron, E., Fillola, O., Roques, C., Durand, D., Massip, P., Lloveras, J. J., and Suc, J. M. (1995) Toxoplasmosis in two renal transplant recipients: diagnosis by bone marrow aspiration, Transplant. Proc., 27, 1733.
Luft, B. J. and Remington, J. S. (1985) Toxoplasmosis of the central nervous system. In: Current Clinical Topics in Infectious Diseases, vol. 6 (Remington, J. S. and Swartz, M. N. eds.), McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 315.
Levy, R. M., Bredersen, D. E., and Rosenblum, M. L. (1985) Neurobiological manifestations of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): experience of UCSF and review of the literature, J. Neurosurg., 621, 475.
Tuazon, C. U. (1989) Toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients, J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 23(Suppl. A), 77–82.
Ferrer, S., Fuentes, I., Domingo, P., Munoz, C., et al. (1996) Cerebral toxoplasmosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: clinico-radiological and therapeutic aspects in 63 patients, An. Med. Interna, 13, 4.
Winstanley, P. (1995) Drug treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Postgrad. Med. J., 71, 404.
Luft, B. J., Hafner, R., Korzun, A. H., Leport, C., Antoniskis, D., Bosler, E. M., Bourland III, D. D., Uttamchandani, R., Fuhrer, J., Jacobson, J., Morlat, P., Vildé, J.-L., Remington, J. S., and the members of the ACTG 077p/ANRS 009 Study Team (1993) Toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, N. Engl. J. Med., 329, 995.
Carr, A., Tindall, B., Brew, B. J., et al. (1992) Low-dose trimethoprim- sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS, Ann. Intern. Med., 117, 106–111.
Alappat, J. P., Mathew, C. F., Jayakumar, K., Suresh, I. C., and Kumar, S. (2000) A case of cerebral toxoplasmosis, Neurol. India, 48, 185–187.
Schlager, S. I. (1998) Management of opportunistic infections in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. I. Treatment, Am. J. Ther., 5, 45–49.
Wilson, C. B., Remington, J. S., Stagno, S., and Reynolds, D. W. (1980) Development of adverse sequelae in children born with subclinical congenital Toxoplasma infection, Pediatrics, 66, 767.
Haverkos, H. W. (coordinator) (1987) Assessment of therapy for Toxoplasma encephalitis. The TE Study Group, Am. J. Med., 82, 907.
Leport, C., Raffi, F., Metherton, S., Katlama, C., Regnier, B., Saimot, A. G., Marche, C., Vedrenne, C., and Vildé J.-L. (1988) Treatment of central nervous system toxoplasmosis with pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine combination in 35 patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: efficacy of long-term continuous therapy, Am. J. Med., 84, 94.
Post, M. J. D., Kusunoglu, S. J., Hensley, C. T., Chan, J. C., Moskowitz, L. B., and Hoffman, T. A. (1985) Cranial CT in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: spectrum of diseases and optimal contrast enhancement technique, Am. J. Radiol., 145, 929.
Costa, B., Tacconi, P., Cannas, A., Pinna, L., and Fiaschi, A. (1988) Cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS. Case report, Ital. J. Neurol. Sci., 9(2), 161–163.
Altes, J., Salas, A., Ricart, C., Villalonga, C., Riera, M., and Casquero, P. (1989) Cerebral toxoplasmosis in patients with AIDS, Arch. Neurobiol. (Madr.), 52(Suppl. 1), 121.
Carrazana, E. J., Rossitch, E., Jr., and Samuels, M. A. (1994) Cerebral toxoplasmosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome, Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg., 91, 291.
Artigas, J., Grosse, G., Niedobitek, F., Kassner, M., Risch, W., and Heise, W. (1994) Severe toxoplasmic ventriculomeningoencephalomyelitis in two AIDS patients following treatment of cerebral toxoplasmic granuloma, Clin. Neuropathol., 13, 120.
Mortier, E., Poirot, J. L., Marteau, M., Febvre, M., Meynard, J. L., Duvivier, C., Maury, E., Picard, O., and Cabane, J. (1996) Pulmonary toxoplasmosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: 21 cases, Presse Med., 25, 485.
Halme, M., Jokipil, L., Jokipil, A. M., Ristola, M., and Lahdevirta, J. (1995) Toxoplasma pneumonia in a patient with AIDS, J. Infect., 31, 252.
Gadea, I., Cuenca, M., Benito, N., Pereda, J. M., and Soriano, F. (1995) Bronchoalveolar lavage for the diagnosis of disseminated toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients, Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 22, 339.
Knani, L., Bouslama, K., Varette, C., Gonzalez Canali, G., Cabane, J., Lebas, J., and Imbert, J. C. (1990) Pulmonary toxoplasmosis in AIDS: report of 3 cases, Ann. Med. Interne (Paris), 141, 469.
Miller, R. F., Lucas, S. B., and Bateman, N. T. (1996) Disseminated Toxoplasma gondii infection presenting with a fulminant pneumonia, Genitourin. Med., 72, 139.
Oksenhendler, E., Cadranel, J., Sarfati, C., Katlama, C., Datrym, A., Marche, C., Wolf, M., Roux, P., Derouin, F., and Clauvel, J. P. (1990) Toxoplasma gondii pneumonia in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Am. J. Med., 88(5 N), 18 N.
Albrecht, H., Stellbrink, H. J., Fenske, S., Schafer, H., and Greten, H. (1994) Successfull treatment of Toxoplasma gondii myocarditis in an AIDS patient, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 13, 500.
Duffield, J. S., Jacob, A. J., and Miller, H. C. (1996) Recurrent, life-threatening atrioventricular dissociation associated with toxoplasma myocarditis, Heart, 76, 453.
Mastroianni, A., Coronado, O., Scarani, P., Manfredi, R., and Chiodo, F. (1996) Liver toxoplasmosis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Recenti Prog. Med., 87, 353.
Bonacini, M., Kanel, G., and Alamy, M. (1996) Duodenal and hepatic toxoplasmosis in a patient with HIV infection: review of the literature, Am. J. Gastroenterol., 91, 1838.
Kume, H. and Takai, T. (1995) Toxoplasmosis of the liver, Ryoikibetsu Shokogun Shirizu, (7), 93.
Besnier, J. M., Verdier, M., Cotty, F., Fétissof, F., Besancenez, A., and Choutet, P. (1995) Toxoplasmosis of the bladder in a patient with AIDS, Clin. Infect. Dis., 21, 452.
Grassi, M. P., Borella, M., Clerici, F., Perin, C., Bini, M. T., and Mongoni, A. (1994) Reversible bilateral opercular syndrome secondary to AIDS-associated cerebral toxoplasmosis, Ital. J. Neurol. Sci., 15, 115.
Piens, M. A. and Garir, J. P. (1989) New perspectives in the chemoprophylaxis of toxoplasmosis, J. Chemother., 1, 46.
McCabe, R. E. and Oster, S. (1989) Current recommendations and future prospects in the treatment of toxoplasma, Drugs, 38, 973.
Georgiev, V. St. (1993) Opportunistic/nosocomial infections: treatment and developmental therapeutics. Toxoplasmosis, Med. Res. Rev., 13, 529.
Georgiev, V. St. (1994) Management of toxoplasmosis, Drugs, 48, 179.
Boyer, K. M. (1996) Diagnosis and treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis, Adv. Pediatr. Infect. Dis., 11, 449.
Behbahani, R., Moshfeghi, M., and Baxter, J. D. (1995) Therapeutic approaches for AIDS-related toxoplasmosis, Ann. Pharmacother., 29, 960 [comment in Ann. Pharmacother., 29, 1303 (1995)]
Tomavo, S. and Boothroyd, J. C. (1995) Interconnection between organellar functions, development and drug resistance in the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, Int. J. Parasitol., 25, 1293–1299
Lambotte, R. (1976) Toxoplasmose congenitale: evaluation du benefice therapeutique prenatal, J. Gynecol. Obstet. Biol. Reprod. (Paris), 5, 265
Derouin, F., Jacqz-Aigrain, E., Thulliez, P., Couvreur, J., and Leport, C. (2000) Cotrimoxazole for prenatal treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis? Parasitol. Today, 16, 254–256
Bloch-Michel, E. (1989) Ocular toxoplasmosis in 1989, Bull. Soc. BeIge Ophthalmol., 230, 53
Finielz, P., Chuet, C., Ramdane, M., and Guiserix, J. (1995) Treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS with cotrimoxazole, Presse Med., 24, 917
Holliman, R. E. (1989) Folate supplements and the treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis, Scand. J. Infect. Dis., 21, 475
Grange, F., Kinney, E. L., Monsuez, J. J., Rybojad, M., Derouin, F., Khuong, M. A., and Janier, M. (1990) Successful therapy for Toxoplasma gondii myocarditis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Am. Heart J., 120, 443
McNamara, J. J. (1973) Antibiotic therapy in compromised hosts, Calif. Med., 119, 49
Podamczer, D., Miró, J. M., Ferrer, E., Gatell, J. M., Ramon, J. M., Ribera, E., Sirera, G., Cruceta, A., Knobel, H., Domingo, P., Polo, R., Leyes, M., Cosin, J., Farinas, M. C., Arrizabalaga, J., Martinez-Lacasa, J., and Gudiol, F. (2000) Thrice- weekly sulfadiazine-pyrimethamine for maintenance therapy of toxoplasmic encephalitis in HIV-infected patients. Spanish Toxoplasmosis Study Group, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 19, 89–95
Podzamczer, D., Mirò, J. M., Ferrer, E., and Gatell, J. M. (1998) Thrice-weekly vs. daily sulfadiazine-pyrimethamine (SP) for maintenance therapy of toxoplasmic encephalitis (TE), 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, Feb. 1–5 [167, abstract 468]
Holliman, R. E. (1991) Clinical and diagnostic findings in 20 patients with toxoplasmosis and acquired immune deficiency syndrome, J. Med. Microbiol., 35, 1
Wanke, C., Tuazon, C. U., Kovacs, A., Dina, T., Davis, D. O., Barton, N., Katz , D., Lunde, M., Levy, C., Conley, F. K., Lane, H. C., Fauci, A. S., and Mazur, H. (1987) Toxoplasma encephalitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome: diagnosis and response to therapy, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 36, 509
Langmann, P., Klinker, H., and Richter, E. (1995) Pyrimethamine-sulphadiazine resistant cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS, Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr., 120, 780
Huber, W., Bautz, W., Classen, M., and Schepp, W. (1995) Pyrimethamine- sulfadiazine resistant cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS, Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr., 120, 60
Luft, B. J., Brooks, R. G., Conley, P. K., McCabe, R. E., and Remington, J. S. (1984) Toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 252, 913
Bell, E. T., Tapper, M. L., and Pollock, A. A. (1985) Sulphadiazine desensitization in AIDS patients, Lancet, 1, 163
Tenant-Flowers, M., Boyle, M. J., Carey, D., Marriott, D. J., Harkness, J. L., Penny, R., and Cooper, D. A. (1991) Sulphadiazine desensitization in patients with AIDS and cerebral toxoplasmosis, AIDS, 5, 311
Leport, C., Tournerie, C., Raguin, G., Fernandez-Martin, J., Niyongabo, T., and Vildé, J.-L. (1991) Long-term follow-up of patients with AIDS on maintenance therapy for toxoplasmosis, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 10, 191
Bhatti, N. and Larson, E. (1990) Low-dose alternate-day pyrimethamine for maintenance therapy in cerebral toxoplasmosis complicating AIDS, J. Infect., 21, 119
Couvreur, J. (1991) In utero treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis with a pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine combination, Presse Med., 20, 1136
Couvreur, J., Thulliez, P., Daffos, F., Aufrant, C., Bompard, Y., Gesquiere, A., and Desmonts, G. (1993) Fetal toxoplasmosis: in utero treatment of toxoplasmic fetopathy with the combination pyrimetamine-sulfadiazine, Fetal Diagn Ther., 8(1), 45–50
Simon, D. I., Brosius III, F. C., and Rothstein, D. M. (1990) Sulfadiazine crystalluria revisited: the treatment of Toxoplasma encephalitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Arch. Intern. Med., 150, 2379
Diaz, F., Collazos, J., Mayo, J., and Martinez, E. (1996) Sulfadiazine-induced multiple urolithiasis and acute renal failure in a patient with AIDS and Toxoplasma encephalitis, Ann. Pharmacother., 30, 41, 1996
Rodriguez-Carballeira, M., Casagran, A., More, J., Argilaga, R., and Garcia, M. (1996) Acute renal insufficiency caused by sulfadiazine in a patient with cerebral toxoplasmosis and AIDS, Enfer. Infecc. Microbiol. Clin., 14, 125
Becker, K., Jablonowski, H., and Haussinger, D. (1996) Sulfadiazine-associated nephrotoxicity in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Medicine (Baltimore), 75, 185
Peh, C. A., Kimber, T. E., Shaw, D. R., and Clarkson, A. R. (1995) Acute renal failure due to sulphadiazine in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), Aust. N. Z. J. Med., 25, 58
Potter, J. L. and Kofron, W. G. (1994) Sulfadiazine/N4-acetylsulfadiazine crystalluria in a patient with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), Clin. Chim. Acta, 230, 221.
Bressollette, L., Carlhant, D., Bellein, V., Morand, C., Mottier, D., and Riche, C. (1994) Crystalluria induced by sulfadiazine in an AIDS patient, Therapie, 49, 154–155
Furrer, H., von Overbeck, J., Jaeger, P., and Hess, B. (1994) Sulfadiazine nephrolithiasis and nephropathy, Schweiz. Med. Wochenschr., 124, 2100
Marques, L. P., Madeira, E. P., and Santos, O. R. (1994) Renal alterations induced by sulfadiazine therapy in an AIDS patient, Clin. Nephrol., 42, 68 [comment in Clin. Nephrol., 39, 254 (1993)]
Kronawitter, U., Jacob, K., Zoller, W. G., Rauh, G., and Goebel, F. D. (1993) Acute kidney failure caused by sulfadiazine stones: a complication of the therapy of toxoplasmosis in AIDS, Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr., 118, 1683
Hein, R., Brunkhorst, R., Thon, W. F., Schedel, I., and Schmidt, R. E. (1993) Symptomatic sulfadiazine crystalluria in AIDS patients: a report of two cases, Clin. Nephrol., 39, 254 [comment in Clin. Nephrol., 42, 68 (1994)]
Farinas, M. C., Echevarria, S., Sampedro, I., Gonzalez, A., Gonzalez, A., Pérez del Molino, A., and Gonzalez-Macias, J. (1993) Renal failure due to sulphadiazine in AIDS patients with cerebral toxoplasmosis, J. Intern. Med., 233, 365
Diaz, F., Collazos, J., Mayo, J., and Martinez, E. (1996) Sulfadiazine-induced multiple urolithiasis and acute renal failure in a patient with AIDS and Toxoplasma encephalitis, Ann. Pharmacother., 30, 41
Molina, J. M., Belefant, X., Doco-Lacompte, T., Idatte, J. M., and Modai, J. (1991) Sulfadiazine induced crystalluria in AIDS patients with toxoplasma encephalitis, AIDS, 5, 587, 1991
Oster, S., Hutchinson, F., and McCabe, R. (1990) Resolution of acute renal failure in toxoplasmic encephalitis despite continuance of sulfadiazine, Rev. Infect. Dis., 12, 618
Caumes, E., Bocquet, H., Guermonprez, G., Rogeaux, O., Bricaire, F., Katlama, C., and Gentilini, M. (1995) Adverse cutaneous reactions to pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine/clindamycin in patients with AIDS and toxoplasmic encephalitis, Clin. Infect. Dis., 21, 656
Lafrenz, M., Ziegler, K., Saender, R., Budde, E., and Naumann, G. (1973) Treatment of toxoplasmosis, Muenchen. Med. Wochenschr., 115, 2057
Norrby, R., Eilard, T., Svedhen, A., and Lycke, E. (1975) Treatment of toxoplasmosis with trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole, Scand. J. Infect.Dis., 7, 72
Norrby, R. and Eilard, T. (1976) Recurrent toxoplasmosis, Scand. J. Infect. Dis., 8, 275
Burchall, J. J. (1973) Mechanism of action of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. II., J. Infect. Dis., 128(Suppl.-Nov), S473
Greenlee, J. E., Johnson, W. D., Jr., Campa, J. F., Adelman, L. S., and Sande, M. A. (1975) Adult cerebellar ataxia, Ann. Intern. Med., 82, 367
Williams, M. and Savage, D. C.L. (1978) Acquired toxoplasmosis in children, Arch. Dis. Child., 53, 829.
Remington, J. S. (1980) Acquired toxoplasmosis in children, Arch. Dis. Child., 55, 80
Esposito, R., Lazzarin, A., Orlando, G., Gallo, M., and Foppa, C. U. (1987) ABC of AIDS: treatment of infections and antiviral agents, Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res.), 295, 668
Solbreux, P., Sonnet, J., and Zech, F. (1990) A retrospective study about the use of cotrimoxazole as diagnostic support and treatment of suspected cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS, Acta Clin. Belg., 45, 85
Desmonts, G. and Couvreur, J. (1979) Congenital toxoplasmosis: a prospective study of the offspring of 542 women who acquired toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. Pathophysiology of congenital disease. In: Proceedings of the 6th European Congress of Perinatal Medicine, Vienna, Austria (Thalhammer, O., Baumgarten, K., and Polak, A. eds.), Georg Thieme, Stuttgart, p. 51
Chang, H. R. and Pechère, J. C. (1988) Activity of spiramycin against Toxoplasma gondii in vitro, in experimental infections and in human infection, J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 22(Suppl.), 87
Martin, C. and Mahon, R. (1974) Traitment de la toxoplasmose, Nouv. Presse Med., 2, 2202
Desmonts, G. and Couvreur, J. (1974) Congenital toxoplasmosis: a prospective study of 378 pregnancies, N. Engl. J. Med., 290, 1110
Desmonts, G., Couvreur, J., and Thulliez, P. (1988) Prophylaxis of congenital toxoplasmosis: effects of spiramycin on placental injection, J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 22(Suppl.), 193
Fortier, B., Ajana, F., Pinto de Sousa, M. I., Aissi, E., and Camus, D. (1991) Prevention and treatment of materno-fetal toxoplasmosis, Presse Med., 20, 1374
Koppe, J. G., Loewer-Siegler, D. H., and De Roever-Bonnet, H. (1986) Results of 20-year follow-up of congenital toxoplasmosis, Lancet, 1, 254
Hohfeld, P., Daffos, F., Thilliez, P., Aufrant, C., Couvreur, J., MacAleese, J., Descombey, D., and Forestier, F. (1989) Fetal toxoplasmosis: outcome of pregnancy and infant follow-up after in utero treatment, J. Pediatr., 115, 765
Chodos, J. B. and Habegger-Chodos, H. E. (1961) The treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis with spiramycin, Arch. Ophthalmol., 65, 401
Fajardo, R. V., Furguiele, F. P., and Leopold, J. M. (1962) Treatment of toxoplasmosis uveitis, Arch. Ophthalmol., 67, 712
Cassidy, J. V., Bahler, J. W., and Minken, M. V. (1964) Spiramycin for toxoplasmosis, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 57, 227
Canamucio, C. J., Hallet, J. W., and Leopold, J. M. (1963) Recurrence of treated toxoplasmic uveitis, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 55, 1035
Timsit, J. C. and Bloch-Michel, E. (1987) Efficacite de la chimiotherapie specifique dans la prevention des recidives des chorioretinitis toxoplasmiques dans les quatre annees qui suivent la traitment, J. Fr. Ophthalmol., 10, 15
Descotes, J., Vial, T., Delattre, D., and Evreux, J. C. (1988) Spiramycin: safety in man, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 22(Suppl. B), 207–210
Burke, G. J. and Mills, A. F. (1979) Toxoplasmosis and clindamycin, S. Afr. Med. J., 55, 156
Remington, J. S. and Vildé, J.-L. (1991) Clindamycin for toxoplasma encephalitis in AIDS, Lancet, 338, 1142
Santos Gil, I., Noguerado Asensio, A., del Arco Galan, C., and Garcia Polo, I. (1989) Clindamycin in the treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis in a patient with AIDS, Rev. Clin. Esp., 185, 47
Dannemann, B. R., Israelski, D. M., and Remington, J. S. (1988) Treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis with intravenous clindamycin, Arch. Intern. Med., 148, 2477
Goldsmith, J. M. (1980) Toxoplasmosis and clindamycin, S. Afr. Med. J., 57, 37
Marcos, C., Sopena, B., Luna, I., Gonzalez, R., de la Fuente, J., and Martinez- Vazquez, C. (1995) Clindamycin desensitization in an AIDS patient, AIDS, 9, 1201
Ruf, B. and Pohle, H. D. (1991) Role of clindamycin in the treatment of acute toxoplasmosis of the central nervous system, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 10, 183
Dannemann, B. R., McCutchan, J. A., Israelski, D. M., Antoniskis, D., Leport, C., Luft, B. J., Chiu, J., Vildé, J.-L., Nussbaum, J. N., Orellana, M., Heseltine, P. N. C., Leedom, J. M., Clumeck, N., Morlat, P., Remington, J. S., and the California Collaborative Treatment Group. (1991) Treatment of acute toxoplasmosis with intravenous clindamycin, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 10, 193
Dannemann, B., MacCutchan, J. A., Israelski, D., Antoniskis, D., Leport, C., Luft, B., Nussbaum, J., Clumeck, N., Morlat, P., Chiu, J., Vildé, J.-L., Orellana, M., M., Feigal, D., Bartok, A., Heseltine, P., Leedom, J., Remington, J. S., and the California Collaborative Treatment Group (1992) Treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS: a randomized trial comparing pyrimethamine plus clindamycin to pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine, Ann. Intern. Med., 116, 33
Dhiver, C., Milandre, C., Poizot-Martin, I., Drogoul, M. P., Gastaut, J. L., and Gastaut, J. A. (1993) 5-Fluoro-uracil-clindamycin for treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis, AIDS, 7, 143
Saba, J., Morlat, P., Raffi, F., Hazebroucq, V., Joly, V., Leport, C., and Vildé, J.-L. (1993) Pyrimethamine plus azithromycin for treatment of acute toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 12, 853
Godofsky, E. W. (1994) Treatment of presumed cerebral toxoplasmosis with azithromycin, N. Engl. J. Med., 330, 575
Valencia, M. E., Laguna, F., Soriano, V., and Gonzalez Lahoz, J. (1993) Favorable course of cerebral toxoplasmosis treated with doxycycline and pyrimetamine, Rev. Clin. Esp., 192, 197
Hagberg, L., Palmertz, B., and Lindberg, J. (1993) Doxycycline and pyrimethamine for toxoplasmic encephalitis, Scand. J. Infect. Dis., 25, 157
Dalston, M. O., Tavares, W., Bazin, A. R., Hahn, M. D., et al. (1995) Clarithromycin combined with pyrimethamine in cerebral toxoplasmosis: a report of 2 cases, Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop., 28, 409
Lacassin, F., Schaffo, D., Perronne, C., Longuet, P., Leport, C., and Vildé, J.-L. (1995) Clarithromycin-minocycline combination as salvage therapy for toxoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 39, 276
Sellal, A., Rabaud, C., Amiel, C., Hoen, B., May, T., and Canton, Ph. (1996) Maintenance treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS: role of clarithromycin-minocycline combination, Presse Med., 25, 509
Alba, D., Molina, F., Ripoli, M. M., and del Arco, A. (1993) Clarithromycin in the treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis associated with HIV infection, Rev. Clin. Esp., 192, 458
Clumeck, N., Katlama, C., Ferrero, T., et al. (1992) Atovaquone (1,4- hydroxynaphthoquinone, 566C80) in the treatment of acute cerebral toxoplasmosis (CT) in AIDS patients, 32nd Intersci. Conf. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., Anaheim, CA, October 11–14 [abstract 1217]
Grundman, M., Torres, R. A., Thorn, M., Hriso, and Britton, D. (1992) Neuroradiologic response to 566C80 salvage therapy for CNS toxoplasmosis, Proc. VIIth International Conference on AIDS, Amsterdam, July 19–24 [abstract PoB 3185]
Kovacs, J. A. (1992) NIAID-Clinical CIAIDSP: efficacy of atovaquone in treatment of toxoplasmosis in patients with AIDS, Lancet, 340, 637
Lafeuillade, A., Pellegrino, P., Poggi, C., Profizi, N., Quilichini, R., Chonette, I., and Navarreté, M. S. (1993) Efficacité de l’atovaquone dans les toxoplasmoses résistantes du SIDA, Presse Med., 22, 1708
Bouboulis, D. A., Rubinstein, A., Shliozberg, J., Madden, J., and Frieri, M. (1995) Cerebral toxoplasmosis in childhood and adult HIV infection treated with 1,4- hydroxynaphthoquinone and rapid desensitization with pyrimethamine, Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol., 74, 491
Durand, J. M., Cretel, E., Bagneres, D., Guillemot, E., Kaplanski, G., and Soubeyrand, J. (1995) Failure of atovaquone in the treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis, AIDS, 9, 812
Katlama, C., Mouthon, B., Gourdon, D., Lapierre, D., and Rousseau, F. (1996) Atovaquone as long-term suppressive therapy for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS and multiple drug intolerance, AIDS, 10, 1107
Masur, H., Polis, M. A., Tuazon, C. U., Ogata-Arakaki, D., Kovacs, J. A., Katz, D., Hilt, D., Simmons, T., Feuerstein, I., Lundgren, B., Lane, H. C., Chabner, B. A., and Allegra, C. J. (1993) Salvage trial of trimetrexate-leucovorin for the treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis in patients with AIDS, J. Infect. Dis., 167, 1422
Tabbara, K. F. (1995) Ocular toxoplasmosis: toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis, Int. Ophthalmol. Clin., 35, 15
Chakroun, M., Meyohas, M. C., Pelosse, B., Zazoun, L., Vacherot, B., Derouin, F., and Leport, C. (1990) Ocular toxoplasmosis in AIDS, Ann. Med. Interne (Paris), 141, 472
Engstrom, R. E., Jr., Holland, G. N., Nussenblatt, R. B., and Jabs, D. A. (1991) Current practices in the management of ocular toxoplasmosis, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 111, 601
Commentary. (1998) Sense and nonsense of corticosteroid administration in the treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis, Br. J. Ophthalmol., 82, 858–860
Ronday, M. J., Luyendijk, L., Baarsma, G. S., Bollemeijer, J. G., Van der Lelij, A., and Rothova, A. (1995) Presumed acquired ocular toxoplasmosis, Arch. Ophthalmol., 113, 1524
Mittelviefhaus, H. (1993) Treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Part 1: basic principles and diagnosis, Kinderarztl. Prax., 61, 90
Mittelviefhaus, H. (1993) Treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Part 2: therapeutic approaches, Kinderarztl. Prax., 61, 154
Rothova, A. (1993) Ocular involvement in toxoplasmosis, Br. J. Ophthalmol., 77, 371 [correction in Br. J. Ophthalmol., 77, 683 (1993)]
Rothova, A., Meenken, C., Buitenhuis, H. J., Brinkman, C. J., Baarsma, G. S., Boen-Tan, T. N., de Jong, P. T. V. M., Klaasen-Broekma, N., Schweitzer, C. M. C., Timerman, Z., de Vries, J., Zaal, M. J. W., and Kijlstra, A. (1993) Therapy of ocular toxoplasmosis, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 115, 517
Psilas, K., Petroutsos, G., and Aspiotis, M. (1990) Treatment of toxoplasmosis, J. Fr. Ophthalmol., 13, 551–553
Lebech, A. M., Lebech, M., Borme, K. K., and Mathiesen, L. R. (1996) Toxoplasmosis-chorioretinitis: clinical course and treatment of seven patients, Ugeskr. Laeger., 158, 3935
Holland, G. N. and Lewis, K. G. (2002) An update on current practices in the management of ocular toxoplasmosis, Am. J. Ophthalmol., 134, 102–114
Lam, S. and Tessler, H. H. (1993) Quadruple therapy for ocular toxoplasmosis, Can. J. Ophthalmol., 28, 58
Rothova, A., Buitenhuls, H. J., Meenken, C., Baarsma, G. S., Boen-Tan, T. N., de Jong, P. T., Schweitzer, C. M., Timmerman, Z., de Vries, J., Zaal, M. J., and Kijlstra, A. (1989) Therapy of ocular toxoplasmosis, Int. Ophthalmol., 13, 415
Colin, J. and Harie, J. C. (1989) Presumed toxoplasmic chorioretinitis: comparative study of treatment with pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine or clindamycin, J. Fr. Ophthalmol., 12, 161
Theodossiadis, G. P., Koutsandrea C., and Tzonou, A. (1989) A comparative study concerning the treatment of active toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis with argon laser and medication (follow-up 2-9 years), Ophthalmologica, 199, 77
Tassignon, M. J., Brihaye, M., De Meuter, F., Vercruysse, A., Van Hoof, F., and De Wilde, F. (1989) Efficacy of treatments in experimental toxoplasmosis, Bull. Soc. Belge Ophthalmol., 230, 59
Fish, R. H., Hoskins, J. C., and Kline, L. B. (1993) Toxoplasmosis neuroretinitis, Ophthalmology, 100, 1177
Antinori, A., Murri, R., Ammassari, A., De Luca, A., Linzalone, A., Cingolani, A., Damiano, F., Maiuro, G., Vecchiet, J., Scoppettuolo, G., Tamburrini, E., and Ortona, L. (1995) Aerosolized pentamidine, cotrimoxazole and dapsone-pyrimethamine for primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis cariniipneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis, AIDS, 9, 1343
Dworkin, M. S., Williamson, J., Jones, J. L., Kaplan, J. E., and the Adult and Adolescent Spectrum of HIV Disease Project (2001) Prophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for human immunodeficiency virus–infected patients: impact on risk for infectious diseases, Clin. Infect. Dis., 33, 393–398
U.S. Public Health Service and Infectious Diseases Society of America (2000) 1999 USPHS/IDSA guidelines for prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus, Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol., 8, 5–74
Klinker, H., Langmann, P., and Richter, E. (1996) Pyrimethamine alone as prophylaxis for cerebral toxoplasmosis in patients with advanced HIV infection, Infection, 24, 324
Jacobson, M. A., Besch, C. L., Child, C., Hafner, R., Matts, J. P., Muth, K., Wentworth, D. N., Neaton, J. D., Abrams, D., Rimland, D., Perez, G., Grant, I. H., Sarovalatz, L. D., Brown, L. S., Deyton, L., and the Terry Bairn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (1994) Primary prophylaxis with pyrimethamine for toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease: results of a randomized trial, J. Infect. Dis., 169, 384
Van Delden, C., Gabriel, V., Sudre, P., Flepp, M., von Overbeck, J., Hirschel, B., and the Swiss HIV Cohort Study (1996) Reasons for failure of prevention of Toxoplasma encephalitis, AIDS, 10, 509
Ribera, E., Fernandez-Sola, A., Juste, C., Rovira, A., Romero, F. J., Armadans-Gil, L., Ruiz, I., Ocana, I., and Pahissa, A. (1999) Comparison of high and low doses of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for primary prevention of toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients, Clin. Infect. Dis., 29, 1461–1466
Saillourglenisson, F., Chene, G., Salmi, L. R., Hafner, R., and Salamon, R. (2000) Effet de la dapsone sur la survie des patients infectes par le VIH: une metanalyse des essais termines, Rev. Epidemiol. Sante Publique, 48, 17–30
Antinori, A., Murri, R., Ammassari, A., Pezzotti, P., Cingolani, A., De Luca, A., Pallavicini, F., and Ortona, L. (1998) Risk of bacterial infections in a cohort of HIV-positive patients receiving anti P. carinii/T. gondii prophylaxis, 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [549, abstract L-9]
Gourdon, F., Laurichesse, H., Dalens, H., Cambon, M., Baud, O., Rigal, D., and Beytout, J. (1998) Ocular toxoplasmosis: clinical experience using pyrimethamine as secondary prophylaxis, 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [566, abstract L-66]
Jubault, V., Pacanowski, J., Rabian, C., and Viard, J. P. (2000) Interruption of prophylaxis for major opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients receiving triple combination antiretroviral therapy, Ann. Med. Interne (Paris), 151, 163–168
Maenza, J. (1999) Discontinuation of prophylaxis in HAART-responders, Hopkins HIV Rep., 11, 2–3
Furrer, H., Opravil, M., Bernasconi, E., Telenti, A., and Egger, M. (2000) Stopping primary prophylaxis in HIV-1-infected patients at high risk of toxoplasma encephalitis. Swiss HIV Cohort Study, Lancet, 355(9222), 2217–2218
Mussini, C., Pezotti, P., Govoni, A., Borghi, V., Antinori, A., d’Arminio Monforte, A., De Luca A., Mongiardo, N., Cerri, M. C., Chiodo, F., Concia, E., Bonazzi, L., Moroni, M., Ortona, L., Esposito, R., Cossarizza, A., and De Rienzo, B. (2000) Discontinuation of primary prophylaxis for Pneumocistis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus type I-infected patients: the changes in opportunistic prophylaxis study, J. Infect. Dis., 181, 1635–1642
Guex, A. C., Radziwill, A. J., and Bucher, H. C. (2000) Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for toxoplasmic encephalitis in human immunodeficiency virus infection after immune restoration with highly active antiretroviral therapy, Clin. Infect. Dis., 30, 602–603
Antinori, A., Cingolani, A., Ammassari, A., Pezzotti, P., Murri, R., de Luca, A., Larocca, L. M., and Ortona, L. (1999) AIDS-related focal brain lesions in the era of HAART, 6th Conference on Retrovirures and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, January 31–February 4 [145, abstract 413]
Ravaux, I., Quinson, A. M., Chadapaud, S., and Gallais, H. (1998) Discontinue primary and secondary prophylaxis regimens in selected HIV-infected patients treated with HAART, 38th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Diego, CA, September 24–27 [429, abstract I-203]
Moore, R. D., Keruly, J. C., and Chaisson, R. E. (1998) Decline in CMV and other opportunistic diseases with combination antiretroviral therapy, 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, February 1–5 [113, abstract 184]
Soriano, V., Dona, C., Rodriguez-Rosado, R., Barreiro, P., and Gonzalez-Lahoz, J. (2000) Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy, AIDS, 14, 383–386
Michaels, S., Clark, R., and Kissinger, P. (1998) Differences in the incidence rates of opportunistic processes before and after the availability of protease inhibitors, 5th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, February 1–5 [112, abstract 180]
Rodriguez-Rosado, R., Soriano, V., Dona, C., and Gonzalez-Lahoz, J. (1998) Opportunistic infections shortly after beginning highly active antiretroviral therapy, Antiviral Ther., 3, 229–231
Krahenbuhl, J. L. and Remington, J. S. (1982) The immunology of toxoplasma and toxoplasmosis. In: Immunology of Parasitic Infections (Cohen, S. and Warren, K. S. eds.), Blackwell, Oxford, p. 356
Gallin, J. I., Farber, J. M., Holland, S. M., and Nitman, T. B. (1995) Interferon- gamma in the management of infectious diseases [clinical conference], Ann. Intern. Med., 123, 216 [comment in Ann. Intern. Med., 124, 1095, (1996)]
Yap, G., Pesin, M., and Sher, A. (2000) Cutting edge: IL-12 is required for the maintenance of IFN-gamma production in T cells mediating chronic resistance to the intracellular pathogen, Toxoplasma gondii, J. Immunol., 165, 628–631
Suzuki, Y. (1999) Genes, cells and cytokines in resistance against development of toxoplasmic encephalitis, Immunobiology, 201, 255–271
McCabe, R. E., Luft, B. J., and Remington, J. S. (1984) Effect of murine interferon gamma on murine toxoplasmosis, J. Infect. Dis., 150, 961
Luft, B. J. and Remington, J. S. (1988) AIDS Commentary. Toxoplasmic encephalitis, J. Infect. Dis., 157, 1–6
Fegies, M. and Guerrero, J. (1977) Treatment of toxoplassmic encephalitis with levamisole, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 71, 178
Zastera, M., Fruehbauer, Z., and Pokorny, J. (1982) Levamisole therapy of experimental toxoplasmosis in white mice, Cesk. Epidemiol. Mikrobiol. Immunol., 31, 94
Youssef, M. Y., el-Ridi, A. M., Arafa, M. S., el-Sawy, M. T., and el-Sayed, W. M. (1985) Effect of levamisole on toxoplasmosis during pregnancy in guinea pigs, J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol., 15, 41
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Georgiev, V.S. (2009). Opportunistic Infections. In: Georgiev, V.S. (eds) National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH. Infectious Disease. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-297-1_36
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-297-1_36
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-60327-296-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-60327-297-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)