Skip to main content

Antibiotic Resistance and Implications for the Appropriate Use of Antimicrobial Agents

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Management of Antimicrobials in Infectious Diseases

Part of the book series: Infectious Disease ((ID))

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance is a major public health threat associated with increased morbidity and mortality as well as enormous healthcare costs that are attributed to longer hospital stays, which require multiple antimicrobial therapies. After recognizing antimicrobial resistance as a phenomenon and the need for a response, the Institute of Medicine published a report in 1988, Antimicrobial Resistance: Issues and Options [1]. The report asserted that antimicrobial resistance was accumulating and accelerating while the tools for combating it were decreasing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 269.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Forum on Emerging Infections (1998). Antimicrobial Resistance: Issues and Options, Workshop report. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, Division of Health Sciences Policy Institute of Medicine

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bridges CB, Thompson WW, Meltzer MI et al. (2000). Effectiveness and cost-benefit of influenza vaccination of healthy working adults: A randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 284(13):1655–1663

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Poehling KA, Zhu Y, Tang YW, Edwards K (2006). Accuracy and impact of a point-of-care rapid influenza test in young children with respiratory illnesses. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 160(7):713–718

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Sharma V, Dowd MD, Slaughter AJ, Simon SD (2002). Effect of rapid diagnosis of influenza virus type a on the emergency department management of febrile infants and toddlers. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 156(1):41–43

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Deyde VM, Xu X, Bright RA et al. (2007). Surveillance of resistance to adamantanes among influenza A(H3N2) and A(H1N1) viruses isolated worldwide. J Infect Dis 196(2):249–257

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. CDC. Influenza weekly report. (Accessed on May 20, 2008 http://www.cdc.gov/flu/weekly/index.htm)

  7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2007). Active Bacterial Core Surveillance (ABCs) report (2007) Emerging Infections Program Network, Streptococcus pneumoniae, 2006. (Accessed on Mar 21, 2008 http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/abcs/reports.htm.)

  8. CDC (1996). Defining the public health impact of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: Report of a working group. MMWR 45:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  9. CDC (1997). Prevention of pneumococcal disease: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR 46:1–25

    Google Scholar 

  10. Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (1994). National surveillance for drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (DRSP) invasive disease. CSTE Position Statement 1994–10

    Google Scholar 

  11. World Health Organization (1997). World malaria situation in 1994, part 1. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 72:269–276

    Google Scholar 

  12. Guinovart C, Navia MM, Tanner M et al. (2006). Malaria: Burden of disease. Curr Mol Med 6:137–140

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. CDC (2008). Health Information for International Travel 2008. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control, Department of Health and Human Services

    Google Scholar 

  14. Bjorkman A, Phillips-Howard PA (1990). The epidemiology of drug-resistant malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84:177–180

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Krogstad DJ (1996). Malaria as a reemerging disease. Epidemiol Rev 18:77–89

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Olliaro P, Cattani J, Wirth D (1996). Malaria, the submerged disease. J Am Med Assoc 275:230–233

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. CDC (2007). Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2006. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

    Google Scholar 

  18. Aziz MA, Wright A, Lazlo A et al. (2006). Epidemiology of antituberculosis drug resistance (the Global Project on Anti-tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance): An updated analysis: WHO/International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Global Project on Anti-tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance

    Google Scholar 

  19. CDC (1998). Progress toward the elimination of tuberculosis – United States, 1998. MMWR 48:732–736

    Google Scholar 

  20. CDC (2007). Trends in tuberculosis incidence – United States, 2006. MMWR 56:245–250

    Google Scholar 

  21. CDC (2008). Sexually Transmitted Diseases Surveillance 2006 Supplement, Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project (GISP) Annual Report 2006

    Google Scholar 

  22. Wang FD, Chen YY, Chen TL et al. (2008). Risk factors and mortality in patients with nosocomial Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Am J Infect Control 36(2):118–122

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Goble M, Iseman MD, Madsen LA et al. (1993). Treatment of 171 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis resistant to isoniazid and rifampin. N Engl J Med 328:527–533

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Chan ED, Laurel V, Strand MJ et al. (2004). Treatment and outcome analysis of 205 patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 169:1103–1109

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Grover D, Copas A, Green H et al. (2008). What is the risk of mortality following diagnosis of multidrug-resistant HIV-1? J Antimicrob Chemother 61(3):705–713

    Google Scholar 

  26. Kleinman MB, Weinberg GA, Reynolds JK, Allen SD (1993). Meningitis with beta-lactam resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: The need for early repeat lumbar puncture. Pediatr Infect Dis J 12:782–784

    Google Scholar 

  27. Lonks JR, Durkin MR, Meyerhoff AN et al. (1995). Meningitis due to ceftriaxone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med 332:893–894

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Catalan MI, Fernandez JM, Vazquez A et al. (1994). Failure of cefotaxime in the treatment of meningitis due to relatively resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin Infect Dis 18:766–769

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Friedland IR, McCracken GH (1994). Management of infections caused by antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med 331:377–382

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Tenover FC, Hughes JM (1996). The challenges of emerging infectious diseases: Development and spread of multiply-resistant bacterial pathogens. J Am Med Assoc 275:300–304

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Jacoby GA, Archer GL (1991). New mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents. N Engl J Med 324:601–612

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Shlaes DM, Gerding DN, John JF et al. (1997). Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and Infectious Diseases Society of America Joint Committee on the Prevention of Antimicrobial Resistance: Guidelines for the prevention of antimicrobial resistance in hospitals. Clin Infect Dis 25:584–599

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Hawkey PM (1998). The origins and molecular basis of antibiotic resistance. Br Med J 317:657–660

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Nikaido H (1994). Prevention of drug access to bacterial targets: Permeability barriers and active efflux. Science 264:382–388

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Levy SB (1992). Active efflux mechanisms for antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 36:695–703

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. White NJ (1992). Antimalarial drug resistance: The pace quickens. J Antimicrob Chemother 30:571–585

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Barat LM, Bloland PB (1997). Drug resistance among malaria and other parasites. Infect Dis Clin North Am 11:969–987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Davies J (1994). Inactivation of antibiotics and the dissemination of resistance genes. Science 264:375–382

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Gold HS (1996). Antimicrobial drug resistance. N Engl J Med 335:1445–1453

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Rattan A, Kalia A, Ahmad N (1998). Multidrug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Molecular perspectives. Emerg Infect Dis 4:195–209

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Hall RM (1997). Mobile gene cassettes and integrons: Moving antibiotic resistance genes in gram-negative bacteria. Ciba Foundation Symposium, 192–202

    Google Scholar 

  42. Belongia EA, Sullivan BJ, Chyou PH et al. (2001). A community intervention trial to promote judicious antibiotic use and reduce penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae carriage in children. Pediatrics 108(3):575–583

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Karlowsky JA, Thornsberry C, Jones ME et al. (2003). Factors associated with relative rates of antimicrobial resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States: results from the TRUST surveillance program (1998–2002). Clin Infect Dis 36:963–970

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Hayden FG, Belshe RB, Clover RD et al. (1989). Emergence and apparent transmission of rimantadine-resistant influenza A virus in families. N Engl J Med 321:1696–1702

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Hall CB, Dolin R, Gala CL et al. (1987). Children with influenza A infection: Treatment with rimantadine. Pediatrics 80:275–282

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Neu HC (1992). The crisis in antibiotic resistance. Science 257:1064–1073

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Jorgenson JH (1997). Laboratory issues in the detection and reporting of antibacterial resistance. Infect Dis Clin North Am 11:785–802

    Google Scholar 

  48. US Congress Office of Technology Assessment (1995). Impacts of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, OTA-H-29

    Google Scholar 

  49. Ballard AL, Cane PA, Pillay D (1998). HIV drug resistance: Genotypic assays and their possible applications. Sex Transm Infect 74:243–248

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Hirsch MS, Conway B, D’Aquila RT et al. (1998). Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adults with HIV infection. J Am Med Assoc 279:1984–1991

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Pillay D (1998). Emergence and control of resistance to antiviral drugs in resistance in herpes viruses, hepatitis B viruses, and HIV. Commun Dis Public Health 1:5–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Dowell SF, Butler JC, Giebink GS et al. (1999). Acute otitis media: Management and surveillance in an era of pneumococcal resistance – a report from the Drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Therapeutic Working Group. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  53. Buehler JW (1998). Surveillance. In: Rothman KJ, Greenland S, (eds) Modern Epidemiology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven

    Google Scholar 

  54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1998). Active Bacterial Core surveillance (ABCs) report, Emerging Infections Program Network, Streptococcus pneumoniae, 1998. (Accessed on Jan 3, 2008 http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/abcs)

  55. Stephens DS, Zughaier SM, Whitney CG et al. (2005). Incidence of macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae after introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Lancet 365(9462):855–863

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Pletz MW, Shergill AP, McGee L et al. (2006). Prevalence of first-step mutants among levofloxacin-susceptible invasive isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50(4):1561–1563

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Hageman JC, Patel JB, Carey RC, Tenover FC, Mcdonald LC (2006). Investigation and control of vancomycin-intermediate and -resistant Staphylococcus aureus: A guide for health departments and infection control personnel (2006). Atlanta, GA. (Accessed on Feb 12, 2008 http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/ar_visavrsa_prevention.html)

  58. Fidler DR (1998). Legal issues associated with antimicrobial drug resistance. Emerg Infect Dis 4:169–177

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Seppala H, Klaukka T, Vuopio-Varkila J et al. (1997). The effect of changes in the consumption of macrolide antibiotics on erythromycin resistance in group A streptococci in Finland. N Engl J Med 337:441–446

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Dowell SF, Whitney CG, Schwartz B (1997). Regional Characteristics of Drug-Resistant Respiratory Pathogens. Series: New Challenges in Respiratory Tract Infections and Causative Pathogens. Part II: Diagnostic Perspectives and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria in Lower Respiratory Tract Infections. Cohen MS, (ed) Am J Med Continuing Education Series 9–16

    Google Scholar 

  61. Wainberg MA, Friedland G (1998). Public health implications of antiretroviral therapy and HIV drug resistance. J Am Med Assoc 279:1977–1983

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Chen DK, McGeer A, De Azavedo JC et al. (1999). Decreased susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada. N Engl J Med 341:233–239

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Levine OS, Farley M, Harrison L et al. (1999). Risk factors for invasive pneumococcal disease in children: A population-based case-control study in North America. Pediatrics 103: (Accessed on Nov 19, 2007 http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/103-3/e28)

  64. Dowell SF, Schwartz B (1997). Resistant pneumococci: Protecting patients through judicious use of antibiotics. Am Fam Physician 55:1647–1654

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. American Academy of Pediatrics (1997). Children in Out-of-Home Child Care. In: Peter G (eds) Red Book: Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 24th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics

    Google Scholar 

  66. American Academy of Pediatrics (1997). School Health. In: Peter G (eds) 1997 Red Book Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 24th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics

    Google Scholar 

  67. Grossman LB (2006). Infection Control in the Child Care Center and Preschool, 7th ed. Silverchair: Charlottesville, VA

    Google Scholar 

  68. American Public Health Association and American Academy of Pediatrics (1992). Caring for Our Children. National Health and Safety Performance Standards: Guidelines for Out-of-Home Child Care Programs. Washington, DC: The Association

    Google Scholar 

  69. Whitney CG, Pilishvili T, Farley M et al. (2006). Effectiveness of seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against invasive pneumococcal diseases; a matched case-control study. Lancet 368:1495–1502

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Kyaw MH, Lynfield R, Schaffner W et al. (2006). Effect of introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med 354(14):1455–1463

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. DiMassa JA, Hansen RW, Grabowski HG (2003). The price of innovation: New estimates of drug development costs. J Health Econ 2003(22):151–185

    Google Scholar 

  72. Projan SJ (2004). Why is big pharma getting out of antibacterial drug discovery? Curr Opin Microbiol 6:427–430

    Google Scholar 

  73. Blaser MJ, Bartlett JG (2006). Letter to FDA Commissioner Andrew C. von Eschenbach, MD. (Accessed on Oct 16, 2007 http://www.idsociety.org/WorkArea/downloadasset.aspx?id=3384)

  74. Boucher HW (2008). Open public forum. In: FDA Anti-Infective Drugs Advisory Committee: Joint with Drug Safety and Risk Management Advisory Committee. Silver Spring, MD

    Google Scholar 

  75. Spellberg B, Guidos R, Gilbert D et al. (2008). The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: A call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 46:155–164

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. McCaig LF, Hughes JM (1995). Trends in antimicrobial drug prescribing among office-based physicians in the United States. J Am Med Assoc 273:214–219

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Gonzales R, Malone DC, Maelli JH et al. (2001). Excessive antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 33:757–762

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Arnold KE, Leggiadro RJ, Breiman RF et al. (1999). Risk factors for carriage of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae among children in Memphis, Tennessee. J Pediatr 128:757–764

    Google Scholar 

  79. Hofmann J, Cetron MS, Farley M et al. (1995). The prevalence of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Atlanta. N Engl J Med 333:481–486

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Dowell SF, Marcy SM, Phillips WR et al. (1998). Principles of judicious use of antimicrobial agents for pediatric upper respiratory tract infections. Pediatrics 101:163–165

    Google Scholar 

  81. US Department of Health and Human Services (2000). Healthy People 2010, 2nd ed. With Understanding and Improving Health and Objectives for Improving Health, 2 vols. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office

    Google Scholar 

  82. Barden LS, Dowell SF, Schwartz B, Lackey C (1998). Current attitudes regarding use of antimicrobial agents: results from physicians’ and parents’ focus group discussions. Clin Pediatr 37(11):665–671

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE et al. (2001). Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of acute respiratory tract infections in adults: Background, specific aims, and methods. Ann Intern Med 134:479–486

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Lum A, Barrett PHJ (1999). Decrease in antibiotic use in ambulatory practice: Impact of a multidimensional intervention on the treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis in adults. J Am Med Assoc 281:1512–1519

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Get Smart: Know When Antibiotics Work Campaign Information (Accessed on Nov 15, 2007 http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/community/campaign_info.htm)

  86. McCaig LF. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Coordinating Center for Health Information and Service, National Center for Health Statistics, Division of Health Care Statistics. Personal communication

    Google Scholar 

  87. Steinman MA, Gonzales R, Linder J et al. (2003). Changing use of antibiotics in community-based outpatient practice 1991–1999. Ann Intern Med 138:525–533

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Campaign to prevent antimicrobial resistance in healthcare settings. (Accessed on Dec 26, 2007 http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/healthcare/overview.htm)

  89. CDC (1994). Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance: Recommendations of the Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). MMWR 44:1–13

    Google Scholar 

  90. Klevens RM, Edwards JR, Tenover FC et al. (2006). National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Changes in the epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in intensive care units in the US hospitals, 1992–2003. Clin Infect Dis 42(3):389–391

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Jones RN (2001). Resistance patterns among nosocomial pathogens: Trends over the past few years. Chest 119(2 Suppl):397S–404S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. NNIS System (2003). National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2003. Am J Infect Control 31(8): 481–498

    Google Scholar 

  93. Kollef MH (2006). Is antibiotic cycling the answer to preventing the emergence of bacterial resistance in the intensive care unit? Clin Infect Dis 43(Suppl 2):S82–S88

    Google Scholar 

  94. Pestotnik SL, Classen DC, Evans RS et al. (1996). Implementing antibiotic practice guidelines through computer-assisted decision support: Clinical and financial outcomes. Ann Intern Med 124:884–890

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Evans RS, Pestotnik SL, Classen DC et al. (1998). A computer-assisted management program for antibiotics and other antiinfective agents. N Engl J Med 338:232–238

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Dennesen PJW, van der Ven AJ, Kessels AGH et al. (2001). Resolution of infectious parameters after antimicrobial therapy in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 163:1371–1375

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Ibrahim EH, Ward S, Sherman G et al. (2001). Experience with a clinical guideline for the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 29:1109–1115

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Chastre J, Wolff M, Fagon JY et al. (2003). Comparison of a 15 vs. 8 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: A randomized trial. J Am Med Assoc 290:2588–2598

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Micek ST, Lloyd AE, Ritchie DJ et al. (2005). Pseudomonas aeruginosa bloodstream infection: Importance of appropriate initial antimicrobial treatment. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49:1306–1311

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE et al. (2007). Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis 44:159–177

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. White AC, Atmar RL, Wilson J et al. (1997). Effects of requiring prior authorization for selected antimicrobials: Expenditures, susceptibilities, and clinical outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 25:230–239

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Bamberger DM, Dahl SL (1992). Impact of voluntary vs. enforced compliance of third-generation cephalosporin use in a teaching hospital. Arch Intern Med 152:554–557

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Goldmann DA, Weinstein RA, Wenzel RP et al. (1996). Strategies to prevent and control the emergence of spread of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms in hospitals: A challenge to hospital leadership. J Am Med Assoc 275:234–240

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Evans RS, Larsen RA, Burke JP et al. (1986). Computer surveillance of hospital-acquired infections and antibiotic use. J Am Med Assoc 256:1001–1007

    Google Scholar 

  105. Avorn J, Solomon DH (2000). Cultural and economic factors that (mis)shape antibiotic use: The nonpharmacologic basis of therapeutics. Arch Intern Med 133:128–135

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Schiff GD, Rucker TD (1998). Computer prescribing. Building up electronic infrastructure for better medication usage. J Am Med Assoc 279:1024–1029

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Gamer J (1996). Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guidelines for isolation precautions in hospitals. Am J Infect Control 24:24–52

    Google Scholar 

  108. CDC (1988). Guidelines for handwashing and hospital environmental control. MMWR 37:377–382

    Google Scholar 

  109. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M et al. (2007). 2007 guideline for isolation precautions: Preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings

    Google Scholar 

  110. Eckstein BC, Adams DA, Rao A et al. (2007). Reduction of Clostridium difficile and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus contamination of environmental surfaces after an intervention to improve cleaning methods. BMC Infect Dis 7:61

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Hussein R, Khakoo R, Hobbs G (2007). Hand hygiene practices in adult versus pediatric intensive care units at a university hospital before and after intervention. Scand J Infect Dis 39(6–7):566–570

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Thomas M, Gillespie W, Krauss J et al. (2005). Focus group data as a tool in assessing effectiveness of a hand hygiene campaign. Am J Infect Control 33(6):368–373

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Shortridge VD, Doern GV, Brueggemann AB et al. (1999). Prevalence of macrolide resistance mechanisms in Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates from a multicenter antibiotic resistance surveillance study conducted in the United States in 1994–1995. Clin Infect Dis 29(5):1186–1188

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Moellering RC (1998). Vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Clin Infect Dis 26:1196–1199

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. CDC. Percent of Resistant Pathogens among Central Line-Associated Blood Stream Infection (CLABSI), Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia (VAP), Catheter-Associated UTI (CAUTI) Healthcare-Acquired Infections; National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) January 2006–October 2007. In: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

    Google Scholar 

  116. Fridkin SK, Gaynes RP (1999). Antimicrobial resistance in intensive care units. Clin Chest Med 20:303–316

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Mulligan ME, Murray-Leisure KA, Ribner BS, Standiford HC, John JF, Korvick JA (1993). Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: A consensus review of the microbiology, pathogenesis, and epidemiology with implications for prevention and management. Am J Med 94:313–328

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Smith TL, Pearson ML, Wilcox KR et al. (1999). Emergence of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med 340:493–501

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. CDC (2007). Sexually Transmitted Diseases Surveillance 2005 Supplement, Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project (GISP) Annual Report 2005. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

    Google Scholar 

  120. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance 2005 supplement: Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project (GISP) annual report, 2005. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services, 2007. (Accessed on Apr 21, 2008 http://www.cdc.gov/std/GISP2005/default.htm)

  121. Ross JDC (1998). Fluoroquinolone resistance in gonorrhea: How, where and so what. Int J STD AIDS 9:318–322

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Erbelding E, Quinn TC (1997). The impact of antimicrobial resistance on the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases. Infect Dis Clin North Am 11:889–903

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Ison CA (1996). Antimicrobial agents and gonorrhoea: Therapeutic choice, resistance, and susceptibility testing. Genitourin Med 72:253–257

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Division of STD Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance of 1997 supplement: Gonococcal isolate surveillance project (GISP) annual report-1997. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dastlr/gcdir/resist/gisp.html

  125. Quinn JP, Dudek EJ, DiVincenzo CA et al. (1986). Emergence of resistance to imipenem during therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Infect Dis 154:289–294

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Hancock REW (1998). Resistance mechanisms in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other nonfermentative gram-negative bacteria. Clin Infect Dis 27(Suppl 1):S93–S99

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. CDC (2008). Trends in tuberculosis – United States, 2007. MMWR 57:281–285

    Google Scholar 

  128. Hodinka RL (1997). What clinicians need to know about antiviral drugs and viral resistance. Infect Dis Clin North Am 11:945–967

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Little S, Daar E, Keiser P et al. (1999). The spectrum and frequency of reduced antiretroviral drug susceptibility with primary HIV infection in the United States [Abstract 121]. Antivir Ther 4(Suppl 1):86

    Google Scholar 

  130. Wegner S, Brodine S, Mascola J et al. (1999). High frequency of antiretroviral drug resistance in HIV-1 from recently infected therapy-naive individuals [Abstract 119]. Antivir Ther 4(Suppl 1):85

    Google Scholar 

  131. Weinstock H, Respess R, Heneine W et al. (2000). Prevalence of mutations associated with antiretroviral drug resistance among HIV-1 seroconverters in the United States, 1993–1998. J Infect Dis 182(1):330–333

    Google Scholar 

  132. Reyes M, Shaik NS, Graber JM et al. (2003). Task Force on Herpes Simplex Virus Resistance. Acyclovir-resistant genital herpes among persons attending sexually transmitted disease and human immunodeficiency virus clinics. Arch Intern Med 163(1):76–80

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Laufer DS, Starr SE (1995). Resistance to antivirals. Pediatr Clin North Am 42:583–599

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Reyes M, Subedar N, Graber JM et al. (1998). Acyclovir-Resistant Herpes Simplex Virus Pilot Surveillance System. San Diego, CA: International Society for Antiviral Resistance

    Google Scholar 

  135. Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Boyken L et al. (2004). Geographic variation in the susceptibilities of invasive isolates of Candida glabrata to seven systemically active antifungal agents: A global assessment from the ARTEMIS Antifungal Surveillance Program conducted in 2001 and 2002. J Clin Microbiol 42:3142–3146

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Gibbs DL et al. (2008). Geographic and temporal trends in isolation and antifungal susceptibility of Candida parapsilosis: A global assessment from the ARTEMIS DISK Antifungal Surveillance Program, 2001 to 2005. J Clin Microbiol 46:842–849

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Weissman J, Besser RE (2004). Promoting appropriate antibiotic use for pediatric patients: A social ecological framework. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 15:41–51

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Finkelstein JA, Davis RL, Dowell SF et al. (2001). Reducing antibiotic use in children: A randomized trial in 12 practices. Pediatrics 108(1):1–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Perz JF, Craig AS, Coffey CS et al. (2002). Changes in antibiotic prescribing for children after a community-wide campaign. J Am Med Assoc 287:3103–3109

    Google Scholar 

  140. Hennessy TW, Petersen KM, Bruden D et al. (2002). Changes in antibiotic-prescribing practices and carriage of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: A controlled intervention trial in rural Alaska. Clin Infect Dis 34:1543–1550

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Meredith Deutscher .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Deutscher, M., Friedman, C. (2010). Antibiotic Resistance and Implications for the Appropriate Use of Antimicrobial Agents. In: Mainous III, A., Pomeroy, C. (eds) Management of Antimicrobials in Infectious Diseases. Infectious Disease. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-239-1_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-239-1_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-60327-238-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-60327-239-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics