Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

The Diabetic Kidney pp 473–498Cite as

Diabetic Retinopathy and Nephropathy

  • Chapter

Part of the book series: Contemporary Diabetes ((CDI))

Abstract

Over a nearly 25-yr period beginning in 1979, four “diabetic renal-retinal syndrome” meetings were held in New York City. They were led by Eli Friedman and Francis L’Esperance, who brought together epidemiologists, bench scientists, clinicians, nephrologists, and ophthalmologists involved in research and clinical care of persons with diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy (1–4). The renal-retinal syndrome was defined in these meetings as “coincident kidney and eye diseases resulting from diabetic microvasculopathy in retinal and glomerular arterioles and capillaries” (3). Data from clinical trials over this 25-yr period demonstrated the efficacy of panretinal and focal photocoagulation preventing visual loss owing to proliferative retinopathy and clinically significant macular edema and of intensive glycemic and blood pressure control preventing progression of retinopathy, nephropathy, and other vascular complications associated with diabetes (4–10). Despite this, both retinopathy and nephropathy remain prevalent and are important causes of loss of function and quality of life (11–14).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Friedman EA, L’Esperance FA, Jr. Diabetic renal-retinal syndrome. Grune & Stratton, New York, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Friedman EA, L’Esperance FA, Jr. Diabetic renal-retinal syndrome. Prevention and management. Grune & Stratton, New York, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Friedman EA, L’Esperance FA, Jr. Diabetic renal-retinal syndrome. Therapy. Grune & Stratton, New York, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Friedman EA, L’Esperance FA, Jr. Diabetic renal-retinal syndrome. Pathogenesis and management update 2002. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  5. The Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Photocoagulation treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Clinical application of Diabetic Retinopathy Study (DRS) findings, DRS Report Number 8. Ophthalmology 1981;88:583–600.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study report number 1. Arch Ophthalmol 1985;103:1796–1806.

    Google Scholar 

  7. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993;329:977–986.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998;352:837–853.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. Brit Med J 1998;317:703–713.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Schrier RW, Estacio RO, Esler A, Mehler P. Effects of aggressive blood pressure control in normotensive type 2 diabetic patients on albuminuria, retinopathy and strokes. Kidney Int 2002;61:1086–1097.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kempen JH, O’Colmain BJ, Leske MC, et al. The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy among adults in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122:552–563.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Klein BE, Klein R, Moss SE. Self-rated health and diabetes of long duration: The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Diabetes Care 1998;21:236–240.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BE, Gutierrez P, Mangione CM. The NEI-VFQ-25 in people with longterm type 1 diabetes mellitus: The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:733–740.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Harris MI, Cowie CC, Stern MP, Boyko EJ, Reiber GE, Bennett PH. Diabetes in America. Springfield, VA: NTIS Accession No. PB-95-1468;1985.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Klein R, Klein BE. Epidemiology of eye disease in diabetes. In: Flynn HWJr, Smiddy WE, eds. Ophthalmology monographs 14. Diabetes and ocular disease: past, present, and future therapies. IV Series. American Academy of Ophthalmology, San Francisco, 2000; pp. 19–67.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Bresnick GH. Diabetic retinopathy. In: Peyman GA, Sanders DR, Goldberg MF, eds. Principles and practice of ophthalmology. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30. Arch Ophthalmol 1984;102:520–526.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years. Arch Ophthalmol 1984;102:527–532.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Bresnick GH. Diabetic maculopathy. A critical review highlighting diffuse macular edema. Ophthalmology 1983;90:1301–1317.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Engerman RL, Kern TS. Progression of incipient diabetic retinopathy during good glycemic control. Diabetes 1987;36:808–812.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. Glycosylated hemoglobin predicts the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. JAMA 1988;260:2864–2871.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Nishikawa T, Edelstein D, Brownlee M. The missing link: a single unifying mechanism for diabetic complications. Kidney Int Suppl 2000;77:S26–S30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, DeMets DL, Kaufman I, Voss PS. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Southern Wisconsin. Am J Epidemiol 1984;119:54–61.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. IX. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol 1989;107:237–243.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. X. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 years or more. Arch Ophthalmol 1989;107:244–249.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XIV. Ten-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1994;112:1217–1228.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XVII. The 14-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy and associated risk factors in type 1 diabetes. Ophthalmology 1998;105:1801–1815.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Hovind P, Tarnow L, Rossing K, et al. Decreasing incidence of severe diabetic microangiopathy in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003;26:1258–1264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Haffner SM, Fong D, Stern MP, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites. Diabetes 1988;37:878–884.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Hamman RF, Mayer EJ, Moo-Young GA, Hildebrandt W, Marshall JA, Baxter J. Prevalence and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy in non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics with NIDDM. San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. Diabetes 1989;38:1231–1237.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Rabb MF, Gagliano DA, Sweeney HE. Diabetic retinopathy in blacks. Diabetes Care 1990;13:1202–1206.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. West KM, Erdreich LJ, Stober JA. A detailed study of risk factors for retinopathy and nephropathy in diabetes. Diabetes 1980;29:501–508.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Harris MI, Klein R, Cowie CC, Rowland M, Byrd-Holt DD. Is the risk of diabetic retinopathy greater in non-Hispanic blacks and Mexican Americans than in non-Hispanic whites with type 2 diabetes? A U.S. population study. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1230–1235.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. West SK, Munoz B, Klein R, et al. Risk factors for Type II diabetes and diabetic retinopathy in a Mexican-American population: Proyecto VER. Am J Ophthalmol 2002;134:390–398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Varma R, Torres M, Pena F, Klein R, Azen SP. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in adult Latinos: the Los Angeles Latino Eye Study. Ophthalmology 2004;111:1298–1306.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Roy MS, Klein R, O’Colmain BJ, Klein BE, Moss SE, Kempen JH. The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy among adult type 1 diabetic persons in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122:546–551.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Leslie RD, Pyke DA. Diabetic retinopathy in identical twins. Diabetes 1982;31:19–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Clustering of long-term complications in families with diabetes in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Diabetes 1997;46:1829–1839.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Fukuda M, Nakano S, Imaizumi N, et al. Mitochondrial DNA mutations are associated with both decreased insulin secretion and advanced microvascular complications in Japanese diabetic subjects. J Diabetes Complications 1999;13:277–283.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Demaine A, Cross D, Millward A. Polymorphisms of the aldose reductase gene and susceptibility to retinopathy in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000;41:4064–4068.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Yamamoto T, Sato T, Hosoi M, et al. Aldose reductase gene polymorphism is associated with progression of diabetic nephropathy in Japanese patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Obes Metab 2003;5:51–57.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Kankova K, Muzik J, Karaskova J, et al. Duration of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and the TNF-beta NcoI genotype as predictive factors in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmological 2001;215:294–298.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Santos A, Salguero ML, Gurrola C, Munoz F, Roig-Melo E, Panduro A. The epsilon4 allele of apolipoprotein E gene is a potential risk factor for the severity of macular edema in type 2 diabetic Mexican patients. Ophthalmic Genet 2002;23:13–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Kao Y, Donaghue KC, Chan A, Bennetts BH, Knight J, Silink M. Paraoxonase gene cluster is a genetic marker for early microvascular complications in type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2002;19:212–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Taverna MJ, Sola A, Guyot-Argenton C, et al. eNOS4 polymorphism of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase predicts risk for severe diabetic retinopathy. Diabet Med 2002;19:240–245.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Kamiuchi K, Hasegawa G, Obayashi H, et al. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) polymorphism is associated with diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2002;19:371–376.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Matsubara Y, Murata M, Maruyama T, et al. Association between diabetic retinopathy and genetic variations in alpha2beta1 integrin, a platelet receptor for collagen. Blood 2000;95:1560–1564.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Yang B, Cross DF, Ollerenshaw M, Millward BA, Demaine AG. Polymorphisms of the vascular endothelial growth factor and susceptibility to diabetic microvascular complications in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Complications 2003;17:1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. West KM. Epidemiology of diabetes and its vascular lesions. Elsevier, New York, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Dorf A, Ballintine EJ, Bennett PH, Miller M. Retinopathy in Pima Indians. Relationships to glucose level, duration of diabetes, age at diagnosis of diabetes, and age at examination in a population with a high prevalence of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 1976;25:554–560.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. King H, Balkau B, Zimmet P, et al. Diabetic Retinopathy in Nauruans. Am J Epidemiol 1983;117:659–667.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Ballard DJ, Melton LJ3, Dwyer MS, et al. Risk factors for diabetic retinopathy: A Population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota. Diabetes Care 1986;9:334–342.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Knuiman MW, Welborn TA, McCann VJ, Stanton KG, Constable IJ. Prevalence of diabetic complications in relation to risk factors. Diabetes 1986;35:1332–1339.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Sjolie AK. Ocular complications in insulin treated diabetes mellitus. An epidemiological study. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 1985;172:1–77.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Teuscher A, Schnell H, Wilson PW. Incidence of diabetic retinopathy and relationship to baseline plasma glucose and blood pressure. Diabetes Care 1988;11:246–251.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Jerneld B. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy. A population study from the Swedish island of Gotland. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 1988;188:3–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. McLeod BK, Thompson JR, Rosenthal AR. The prevalence of retinopathy in the insulin-requiring diabetic patients of an English country town. Eye 1988;2:424–430.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Kostraba JN, Klein R, Dorman JS, et al. The Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications Study IV. Correlates of diabetic background and proliferative retinopathy. Am J Epidemiol 1991;133:381–391.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Fujimoto W, Fuduka M. Natural history of diabetic retinopathy and its treatment in Japan. In: Baba S, Goto Y, Fukui I, eds. Diabetes mellitus in Asia. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, 1976:225–231.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. Relationship of hyperglycemia to the long-term incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:2169–2178.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Research Group. Retinopathy and nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes four years after a trial of intensive therapy. N Engl J Med 2000;342:381–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet 1998;352:854–865.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Gray A, Raikou M, McGuire A, et al. Cost effectiveness of an intensive blood glucose control policy in patients with type 2 diabetes: economic analysis alongside randomised controlled trial (UKPDS 41). BMJ 2000;320:1373–1378.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1994;17:616–623.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Harris MI. Health care and health status and outcomes for patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2000;23:754–758.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ. The medical management of hyperglycemia over a 10-year period in people with diabetes. Diabetes Care 1996;19:744–750.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Davis MD. Diabetic retinopathy, diabetes control, and blood pressure. Transplant Proc 1986;18:1565–158.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Kohner EM. Diabetic retinopathy. Br Med Bull 1989;45:148–173.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, Davis MD, DeMets DL. Is blood pressure a predictor of the incidence or progression of diabetic retinopathy? Arch Intern Med 1989;149:2427–2432.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Klein BE, Klein R, Moss SE, Palta M. A cohort study of the relationship of diabetic retinopathy to blood pressure. Arch Ophthalmol 1995;113:601–606.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Adler AI, Stratton IM, Neil HA, et al. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): prospective observational study. BMJ 2000;321:412–419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Chaturvedi N, Sjolie AK, Stephenson JM, et al. Effect of lisinopril on progression of retinopathy in normotensive people with type 1 diabetes. The EUCLID Study Group. EURODIAB controlled trial of lisinopril in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1998;351:28–31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Matthews DR, Stratton IM, Aldington SJ, Holman RR, Kohner EM. Risks of progression of retinopathy and vision loss related to tight blood pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus: UKPDS 69. Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122:1631–1640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Estacio RO, Jeffers BW, Gifford N, Schrier RW. Effect of blood pressure control on diabetic microvascular complications in patients with hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2000;23(2):B54–B64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R, Surawicz TS. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XIII. Relationship of serum cholesterol to retinopathy and hard exudate. Ophthalmology 1991;98:1261–1265.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Chew EY, Klein ML, Ferris FL, III, et al. Association of elevated serum lipid levels with retinal hard exudate in diabetic retinopathy. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) report 22. Arch Ophthalmol 1996;114:1079–1084.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Miljanovic B, Glynn RJ, Nathan DM, Manson JE, Schaumberg DA. A prospective study of serum lipids and risk of diabetic macular edema in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 2004;53:2883–2892.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Adamis AP Is diabetic retinopathy an inflammatory disease? Br J Ophthalmol 2002;86:363–365.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Lechleitner M, Koch T, Herold M, Dzien A, Hoppichler F. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha plasma level in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and its association with glycaemic control and cardiovascular risk factors. J Intern Med 2000;248:67–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Schmidt AM, Hori O, Chen JX, et al. Advanced glycation endproducts interacting with their endothelial receptor induce expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) in cultured human endothelial cells and in mice. A potential mechanism for the accelerated vasculopathy of diabetes. J Clin Invest 1995;96:1395–1403.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Schram MT, Chaturvedi N, Schalkwijk C, et al. Vascular risk factors and markers of endothelial function as determinants of inflammatory markers in type 1 diabetes: the EURODIAB prospective complications study. Diabetes Care 2003;26:2165–2173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Schalkwijk CG, Chaturvedi N, Twaafhoven H, van Hinsbergh VW, Stehouwer CD. Amadori-albumin correlates with microvascular complications and precedes nephropathy in type 1 diabetic patients. Eur J Clin Invest 2002;32:500–506.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Powell ED, Field RA. Diabetic retinopthy and rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 1964;41:17,18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Yuuki T, Kanda T, Kimura Y, et al. Inflammatory cytokines in vitreous fluid and serum of patients with diabetic vitreoretinopathy. J Diabetes Complications 2001;15:257–259.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Funatsu H, Yamashita H, Ikeda T, Mimura T, Shimizu E, Hori S. Relation of diabetic macular edema to cytokines and posterior vitreous detachment. Am J Ophthalmol 2003;135:321–327.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Poston L, Taylor PD. Glaxo/MRS Young Investigator Prize. Endothelium-mediated vascular function in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Clin Sci (Lond) 1995;88:245–255.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Frank RN. Diabetic retinopathy. N Engl J Med 2004;350:48–58.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Shibuki H, Katai N, Yodoi J, Uchida K, Yoshimura N. Lipid peroxidation and peroxynitrite in retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000;41:3607–3614.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Hartnett ME, Stratton RD, Browne RW, Rosner BA, Lanham RJ, Armstrong D. Serum markers of oxidative stress and severity of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 2000;23:234–240.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Tilton RG, Chang KC, LeJeune WS, Stephan CC, Brock TA, Williamson JR. Role for nitric oxide in the hyperpermeability and hemodynamic changes induced by intravenous VEGF. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999;40:689–696.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Papapetropoulos A, Garcia-Cardena G, Madri JA, Sessa WC. Nitric oxide production contributes to the angiogenic properties of vascular endothelial growth factor in human endothelial cells. J Clin Invest 1997;100:313–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Fukumura D, Gohongi T, Kadambi A, et al. Predominant role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in vascular endothelial growth factor-induced angiogenesis and vascular permeability. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:2604–2609.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Agardh CD, Agardh E, Andersson A, Hultberg B. Lack of association between plasma homocysteine levels and microangiopathy in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1994;54:637–641.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Hoogeveen EK, Kostense PJ, Eysink PE, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia is associated with the presence of retinopathy in type 2 diabetes mellitus: the hoorn study. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:2984–2990.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Looker HC, Fagot-Campagna A, Gunter EW, et al. Homocysteine as a risk factor for nephropathy and retinopathy in type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia ER 2003;46:766–772.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Vaccaro O, Perna AF, Mancini FP, et al. Plasma homocysteine and microvascular complications in type 1 diabetes. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2000;10:297–304.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Chiarelli F, Pomilio M, Mohn A, et al. Homocysteine levels during fasting and after methionine loading in adolescents with diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy. J Pediatr 2000;137:386–392.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Hultberg B, Agardh E, Andersson A, et al. Increased levels of plasma homocysteine are associated with nephropathy, but not severe retinopathy in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1991;51:277–282.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Hultberg B, Agardh CD, Agardh E, Lovestam-Adrian M. Poor metabolic control, early age at onset, and marginal folate deficiency are associated with increasing levels of plasma homocysteine in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. A five-year follow-up study. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1997;57:595–600.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Gaede P, Vedel P, Parving HH, Pedersen O. Elevated levels of plasma von Willebrand factor and the risk of macro-and microvascular disease in type 2 diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001;16:2028–2033.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Lip PL, Belgore F, Blann AD, Hope-Ross MW, Gibson JM, Lip GY Plasma VEGF and soluble VEGF receptor FLT-1 in proliferative retinopathy: relationship to endothelial dysfunction and laser treatment. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000;41:2115–2119.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Lee ET, Lee VS, Kingsley RM, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in Oklahoma Indians with NIDDM incidence and risk factors. Diabetes Care 1992;15:1620–1627.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Klein R, Klein BE, Davis MD. Is cigarette smoking associated with diabetic retinopathy? Am J Epidemiol 1983;118:228–238.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE. Association of cigarette smoking with diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care 1991;14:119–126.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE. Cigarette smoking and ten-year progression of diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1996;103:1438–1442.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Goldsmith JR, Landaw SA. Carbon monoxide and human health. Science 1968;162:1352–1359.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Hawkins RI. Smoking, platelets and thrombosis. Nature 1972;236:450–452.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Sinclair SH. Macular retinal capillary hemodynamics in diabetic patients. Ophthalmology 1991;98:1580–1586.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Qiao Q, Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi S, Laara E. The relationship between hemoglobin levels and diabetic retinopathy. J Clin Epidemiol 1997;50:153–158.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Davis MD, Fisher MR, Gangnon RE, et al. Risk factors for high-risk proliferative diabetic retinopathy and severe visual loss: Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study report no. 18. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1998;39:233–252.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Sinclair SH, DelVecchio C, Levin A. Treatment of anemia in the diabetic patient with retinopathy and kidney disease. Am J Ophthalmol 2003;135:740–743.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Borch-Johnsen K, Kreiner S. Proteinuria: value as predictor of cardiovascular mortality in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1987;294:1651–1654.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Winocour PH, Durrington PN, Ishola M, Anderson DC, Cohen H. Influence of proteinuria on vascular disease, blood pressure, and lipoproteins in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1987;294:1648–1651.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Nielsen NV. Diabetic retinopathy II. The course of retinopathy in diabetics treated with oral hypoglycaemic agents and diet regime alone. A one year epidemiological cohort study of diabetes mellitus. The Island of Falster, Denmark. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1984;62:266–273.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Biswas G, Dutta S, Mandal S, Biswas MC, Banerjee S, Saha SJ. Association of diabetic maculopathy with diabetic nephropathy-a study. J Indian Med Assoc 2002;100:567,568.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Zander E, Herfurth S, Bohl B, et al. Maculopathy in patients with diabetes mellitus type 1 and type 2: associations with risk factors. Br J Ophthalmol 2000;84:871–876.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Jensen T, Deckert T. Diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy. Generalized vascular damage in insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Horm Metab Res Suppl 1992;26:68–70.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Gilbert RE, Tsalamandris C, Allen TJ, Colville D, Jerums G. Early nephropathy predicts vision-threatening retinal disease in patients with type I diabetes mellitus. J Am Soc Nephrol 1998;9:85–89.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Lloyd CE, Klein R, Maser RE, Kuller LH, Becker DJ, Orchard TJ. The progression of retinopathy over 2 years: the Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications (EDC) study. J Diabetes Complications 1995;9:140–148.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Lloyd CE, Orchard TJ. Diabetes complications: the renal-retinal link. An epidemiological perspective. Diabetes Care 1995;18:1034–1036.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Wirta O, Pasternack A, Mustonen J, Laippala P, Lahde Y. Retinopathy is independently related to microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Nephrol 1999;51:329–334.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Estacio RO, McFarling E, Biggerstaff S, Jeffers BW, Johnson D, Schrier RW. Overt albuminuria predicts diabetic retinopathy in Hispanics with NIDDM. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;31:947–953.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Parving HH, Hommel E, Mathiesen E, Skott P. Prevalence of microalbuminuria, arterial hypertension, retinopathy, and neuropathy in patients with insulin dependent diabetes. Brit Med J 1988;296:156–160.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Kofoed-Enevoldsen A, Jensen T, Borch-Johnsen K, Deckert T. Incidence of retinopathy in type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes: association with clinical nephropathy. J Diabet Complications 1987;1:96–99.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Aiello LM, Rand LI, Briones JC, Weiss JN, Wafai MZ. Nonocular clinical risk factors in the progression of diabetic retinopathy. In: Little HL, Jack RL, Patz A, Forsham PH, eds. Diabetic retinopathy Thieme-Stratton, New York, 1983:21–32.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Tokuyama T, Ikeda T, Sato K. Effects of haemodialysis on diabetic macular leakage. Br J Ophthalmol 2000;84:1397–1400.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Tong PC, Lee KF, So WY, et al. White blood cell count is associated with macro-and microvascular complications in chinese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27:216–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Looker HC, Fagot-Campagna A, Gunter EW, et al. Homocysteine as a risk factor for nephropathy and retinopathy in Type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia ER 2003;46:766–772.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Ng PK, Chia KS, Koh D. Phenotypic heterogeneity and associations of two aldose reductase gene polymorphisms with nephropathy and retinopathy in type 2 diabetes: response to Wang et al. Diabetes Care 2004;27:289–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Chung SS, Chung SK. Genetic analysis of aldose reductase in diabetic complications. Curr Med Chem 2003;10:1375–1387.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Agardh E, Tallroth G, Bauer B, Cavallin-Sjoberg U, Agardh CD. Retinopathy and nephropathy in insulin-dependent diabetics: an inconsistent relationship? Diabet Med 1987;4:248–250.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Lovestam-Adrian M, Agardh E, Agardh CD. The incidence of nephropathy in type 1 diabetic patients with proliferative retinopathy: a 10-year follow-up study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1998;39:11–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Chavers BM, Mauer SM, Ramsay RC, Steffes MW. Relationship between retinal and glomerular lesions in IDDM patients. Diabetes 1994;43:441–446.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Schwartz MM, Lewis EJ, Leonard-Martin T, Lewis JB, Batlle D. Renal pathology patterns in type II diabetes mellitus: relationship with retinopathy. The Collaborative Study Group. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998;13:2547–2552.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Kanauchi M, Kawano T, Uyama H, Shiiki H, Dohi K. Discordance between retinopathy and nephropathy in type 2 diabetes. Nephron 1998;80:171–174.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Williamson JR, Tilton RG, Chang K, Kilo C. Basement membrane abnormalities in diabetes mellitus: relationship to clinical microangiopathy. Diabetes Metab Rev 1988;4:339–370.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Silverstein JH, Fennell R, Donnelly W, et al. Correlates of biopsy-studied nephropathy in young patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Pediatr 1985;106:196–201.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Klein R, Zinman B, Gardiner R, et al. The relationship of diabetic retinopathy to preclinical diabetic glomerulopathy lesions in type 1 diabetic patients: the Renin-Angiotensin system study. Diabetes 2005;54:527–533.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Richards NT, Greaves I, Lee SJ, Howie AJ, Adu D, Michael J. Increased prevalence of renal biopsy findings other than diabetic glomerulopathy in type II diabetes mellitus. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1992;7:397–399.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI

    Ronald Klein MD, MPH

Authors
  1. Ronald Klein MD, MPH
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI

    Pedro Cortes MD

  2. Department of Internal Medicine M (Diabetes and Endocrinology), Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark

    Carl Erik Mogensen MD

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2006 Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Klein, R. (2006). Diabetic Retinopathy and Nephropathy. In: Cortes, P., Mogensen, C.E. (eds) The Diabetic Kidney. Contemporary Diabetes. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-153-6_27

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-153-6_27

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-624-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59745-153-6

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation