Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, remains a major cause of death around the world. Diseases caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria are increasingly associated with immunocompromised individuals. The availability of whole-genome sequences of mycobacterial species in the past several years has revolutionized TB research. This chapter provides an overview of the biology of mycobacteria and the diseases that they cause, with emphasis on how recent advances in genomics have improved our knowledge of the lifestyle and phylogeny of these organisms.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Cornet, G. (1904) Tuberculosis and Acute General Miliary Tuberculosis. W.B. Sauders and Co., Philadelphia.
World Health Organization. Stop TB Annual Report. (2001) World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2002) Leprosy. Global situation. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. 77, 1–8.
Cocito, C., Gilot, P., Coene, M., de Kesel, M., Poupart, P., and Vannuffel, P. (1994) Paratuberculosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 7, 328–345.
Cole, S. T., Brosch, R., Parkhill, J., et al. (1998) Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence. Nature 393, 537–544.
Garnier, T., Eiglmeier, K., Camus, J. C., et al. (2003) The complete genome sequence of Mycobacterium bovis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 7877–7882.
Cole, S. T., Eiglmeier, K., Parkhill, J., et al. (2001) Massive gene decay in the leprosy bacillus. Nature 409, 1007–1011.
Fleischmann, R. D., Alland, D., Eisen, J. A., et al. (2002) Whole-genome comparison of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical and laboratory strains. J. Bacteriol. 184, 5479–5490.
Harmsen, D., Dostal, S., Roth, A., et al. (2003) RIDOM: comprehensive and public sequence database for identification of Mycobacterium species. BMC. Infect. Dis. 3, 26.
Primm, T. P., Lucero, C. A., and Falkinham, J. O. (2004) Health impacts of environmental mycobacteria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17, 98–106.
Wayne, L. G. and Sramek, H. A. (1992) Agents of newly recognized or infrequently encountered mycobacterial diseases. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 5, 1–25.
Wolinsky, E. (1992) Mycobacterial diseases other than tuberculosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 15, 1–10.
Tortoli, E. (2003) Impact of genotypic studies on mycobacterial taxonomy: the new mycobacteria of the 1990s. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16, 319–354.
Roth, A., Fischer, M., Hamid, M. E., Michalke, S., Ludwig, W., and Mauch, H. (1998) Differentiation of phylogenetically related slowly growing mycobacteria based on 16S-23S rRNA gene internal transcribed spacer sequences. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36, 139–147.
Cloud, J. L., Neal, H., Rosenberry, R., et al. (2002) Identification of Mycobacterium spp. by using a commercial 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing kit and additional sequencing libraries. J. Clin. Microbiol. 40, 400–406.
Koch, R. (1882) Die Aetiologie der Tuberkulose. Berliner Klinischen Wochenschrift. 15, 221–230.
Salo, W. L., Aufderheide, A. C., Buikstra, J., and Holcomb, T. A. (1994) Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in a pre-Columbian Peruvian mummy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 2091–2094.
Zink, A. R., Sola, C., Reischl, U., et al. (2003) Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNAs from Egyptian mummies by spoligotyping. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41, 359–367.
Dye, C., Scheele, S., Dolin, P., Pathania, V., and Raviglione, M. C. (1999) Consensus statement. Global burden of tuberculosis: estimated incidence, prevalence, and mortality by country. WHO Global Surveillance and Monitoring Project. JAMA 282, 677–686.
World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control: Surveillance, Planning, Financing. WHO Report 2004. (2004) World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Gazzard, B. (2001) Tuberculosis, HIV and the developing world. Clin. Med. 1, 62–68.
Porter, J. D. (1996) Mycobacteriosis and HIV infection: the new public health challenge. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 37, 113–120.
Cosma, C. L., Sherman, D. R., and Ramakrishnan, L. (2003) The secret lives of the pathogenic mycobacteria. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 57, 641–676.
Smith, I. (2003) Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis and molecular determinants of virulence. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16, 463–496.
Amer, A. O. and Swanson, M. S. (2002) A phagosome of one’s own: a microbial guide to life in the macrophage. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 5, 56–61.
Deretic, V. and Fratti, R. A. (1999) Mycobacterium tuberculosis phagosome. Mol. Microbiol. 31, 1603–1609.
Stewart, G. R., Robertson, B. D., and Young, D. B. (2003) Tuberculosis: a problem with persistence. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 1, 97–105.
Wayne, L. G. (1994) Dormancy of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and latency of disease. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 13, 908–914.
Lawn, S. D., Butera, S. T., and Shinnick, T. M. (2002) Tuberculosis unleashed: the impact of human immunodeficiency virus infection on the host granulomatous response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Microbes. Infect. 4, 635–646.
Espinal, M. A. (2003) The global situation of MDR-TB. Tuberculosis 83, 44–51.
Mukherjee, J. S., Rich, M. L., Socci, A. R., et al. (2004) Programmes and principles in treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Lancet 363, 474–481.
Nachega, J. B. and Chaisson, R. E. (2003) Tuberculosis drug resistance: a global threat. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36, S24–S30.
Valway, S. E., Sanchez, M. P., Shinnick, T. F., et al. (1998) An outbreak involving extensive transmission of a virulent strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 633–639.
Glynn, J. R., Whiteley, J., Bifani, P. J., Kremer, K., and van Soolingen, D. (2002) Worldwide occurrence of Beijing/W strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a systematic review. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8, 843–849.
van Soolingen, D., Qian, L., de Haas, P. E., et al. (1995) Predominance of a single genotype of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in countries of east Asia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33, 3234–3238.
Tsolaki, A. G., Hirsh, A. E., DeRiemer, K., et al. (2004) Functional and evolutionary genomics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: insights from genomic deletions in 100 strains. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 4865–4870.
Perna, N. T., Plunkett, G., Burland, V., et al. (2001) Genome sequence of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7. Nature 409, 529–533.
Sreevatsan, S., Pan, X., Stockbauer, K. E., et al. (1997) Restricted structural gene polymorphism in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex indicates evolutionary recent global dissemination. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 9869–9874.
Barnes, P. F. and Cave, M. D. (2003) Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 1149–1156.
van Soolingen, D. (2001) Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis and other mycobacterial infections: main methodologies and achievements. J. Intern. Med. 249, 1–26.
Mostrom, P., Gordon, M., Sola, C., Ridell, M., and Rastogi, N. (2002) Methods used in the molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 8, 694–704.
Brosch, R., Gordon, S. V., Marmiesse, M., et al. (2002) A new evolutionary scenario for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 3684–3689.
Gutacker, M. M., Smoot, J. C., Migliaccio, C. A., et al. (2002) Genome-wide analysis of synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms in Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms: resolution of genetic relationships among closely related microbial strains. Genetics 162, 1533–1543.
Mostowy, S., Cousins, D., Brinkman, J., Aranaz, A., and Behr, M. A. (2002) Genomic deletions suggest a phylogeny for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. J. Infect. Dis. 186, 74–80.
Mostowy, S., Onipede, A., Gagneux, S., et al. (2004) Genomic analysis distinguishes Mycobacterium africanum. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 3594–3599.
Mostowy, S., Cousins, D., and Behr, M. A. (2004) Genomic interrogation of the dassie bacillus reveals it as a unique RD1 mutant within the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. J. Bacteriol. 186, 104–109.
Chen, J. M., Alexander, D. C., Behr, M. A., and Liu, J. (2003) Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccines exhibit defects in alanine and serine catabolism. Infect. Immun. 71, 708–716.
Behr, M. A. and Small, P. M. (1999) A historical and molecular phylogeny of BCG strains. Vaccine 17, 915–922.
Crispen, R. (1989) History of BCG and its substrains. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 310, 35–50
Behr, M. A. and Small, P. M. (1997) Has BCG attenuated to impotence? Nature 389, 133–134.
Brewer, T. F. and Colditz, G. A. (1995) Relationship between bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) strains and the efficacy of BCG vaccine in the prevention of tuberculosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20, 126–135.
Brandt, L., Feino, C. J., Weinreich, O. A., et al. (2002) Failure of the Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccine: some species of environmental mycobacteria block multiplication of BCG and induction of protective immunity to tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 70, 672–678.
Buddle, B. M., Wards, B. J., Aldwell, F. E., Collins, D. M., and de Lisle, G. W. (2002) Influence of sensitisation to environmental mycobacteria on subsequent vaccination against bovine tuberculosis. Vaccine 20, 1126–1133.
Behr, M. A., Wilson, M. A., Gill, W. P., et al. (1999) Comparative genomics of BCG vaccines by whole-genome DNA microarray. Science 284, 1520–1523.
Mahairas, G. G., Sabo, P. J., Hickey, M. J., Singh, D. C., and Stover, C. K. (1996) Molecular analysis of genetic differences between Mycobacterium bovis BCG and virulent M. bovis. J. Bacteriol. 178, 1274–1282.
Lewis, K. N., Liao, R., Guinn, K. M., et al. (2003) Deletion of RD1 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis mimics bacille Calmette-Guerin attenuation. J. Infect. Dis. 187, 117–123.
Pym, A. S., Brodin, P., Brosch, R., Huerre, M., and Cole, S. T. (2002) Loss of RD1 contributed to the attenuation of the live tuberculosis vaccines Mycobacterium bovis BCG and Mycobacterium microti. Mol. Microbiol. 46, 709–717.
Mostowy, S., Tsolaki, A. G., Small, P. M., and Behr, M. A. (2003) The in vitro evolution of BCG vaccines. Vaccine 21, 4270–4274.
Doherty, T. M. and Andersen, P. (2002) Tuberculosis vaccine development. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 8, 183–187.
Kumar, H., Malhotra, D., Goswami, S., and Bamezai, R. N. (2003) How far have we reached in tuberculosis vaccine development? Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 29, 297–312.
Young, D. B. and Stewart, G. R. (2002) Tuberculosis vaccines. Br. Med. Bull. 62, 73–86.
Horwitz, M. A. and Harth, G. (2003) A new vaccine against tuberculosis affords greater survival after challenge than the current vaccine in the guinea pig model of pulmonary tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 71, 1672–1679.
Pym, A. S., Brodin, P., Majlessi, L., et al. (2003) Recombinant BCG exporting ESAT-6 confers enhanced protection against tuberculosis. Nat. Med. 9, 533–539.
Stover, C. K., Bansal, G. P., Hanson, M. S., et al. (1993) Protective immunity elicited by recombinant bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) expressing outer surface protein A (OspA) lipoprotein: a candidate Lyme disease vaccine. J. Exp. Med. 178, 197–209.
Stover, C. K., de la Cruz, V. F., Fuerst, T. R., et al. (1991) New use of BCG for recombinant vaccines. Nature 351, 456–460.
Varaldo, P. B., Leite, L. C., Dias, W. O., et al. (2004) Recombinant Mycobacterium bovis BCG expressing the Sm14 antigen of Schistosoma mansoni protects mice from cercarial challenge. Infect. Immun. 72, 3336–3343.
Shelley, M. D., Court, J. B., Kynaston, H., et al. (2004) Intravesical Bacillus Calmette-Guerin in Ta and T1 Bladder Cancer. In: The Cochrane Library 4, John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK.
Hansen, G. H. A. (1875) On the etiology of leprosy. Br. J. Foreign Med. Chir. Rev. 55, 459–489.
Brennan, P. J. and Vissa, V. D. (2001) Genomic evidence for the retention of the essential mycobacterial cell wall in the otherwise defective Mycobacterium leprae. Lepr. Rev. 72, 415–428.
Behr, M. A., Schroeder, B. G., Brinkman, J. N., Slayden, R. A., and Barry, C. E. (2000) A point mutation in the mma3 gene is responsible for impaired methoxymycolic acid production in Mycobacterium bovis BCG strains obtained after 1927. J. Bacteriol. 182, 3394–3399.
Groathouse, N. A., Rivoire, B., Kim, H., et al. (2004) Multiple polymorphic loci for molecular typing of strains of Mycobacterium leprae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 1666–1672.
Shin, Y. C., Lee, H., Walsh, G. P., Kim, J. D., and Cho, S. N. (2000) Variable numbers of TTC repeats in Mycobacterium leprae DNA from leprosy patients and use in strain differentiation. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38, 4535–4538.
Chacon, O., Bermudez, L. E., and Barletta, R. G. (2004) Johne’s disease, inflammatory bowel disease, and Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 58, 329–363.
Greenstein, R. J. (2003) Is Crohn’s disease caused by a mycobacterium? Comparisons with leprosy, tuberculosis, and Johne’s disease. Lancet Infect. Dis. 3, 507–514.
Hermon-Taylor, J. and Bull, T. (2002) Crohn’s disease caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: a public health tragedy whose resolution is long overdue. J. Med. Microbiol. 51, 3–6.
Novi, C., Rindi, L., Lari, N., and Garzelli, C. (2000) Molecular typing of Mycobacterium avium isolates by sequencing of the 16S-23S rDNA internal transcribed spacer and comparison with IS1245-based fingerprinting. J. Med. Microbiol. 49, 1091–1095.
Krzywinska, E., Krzywinski, J., and Schorey, J. S. (2004) Naturally occurring horizontal gene transfer and homologous recombination in Mycobacterium. Microbiology 150, 1707–1712.
Whittington, R. J., Marshall, D. J., Nicholls, P. J., Marsh, I. B., and Reddacliff, L. A. (2004) Survival and dormancy of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in the environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70, 2989–3004.
Falkinham, J. O., Norton, C. D., and LeChevallier, M. W. (2001) Factors influencing numbers of Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare, and other Mycobacteria in drinking water distribution systems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67, 1225–1231.
Skriwan, C., Fajardo, M., Hagele, S., et al. (2002) Various bacterial pathogens and symbionts infect the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 291, 615–624.
Semret, M., Zhai, G., Mostowy, S., et al. (2004) Extensive genomic polymorphism within Mycobacterium avium. J. Bacteriol. 186, 6332–6334.
Bull, T. J., Hermon-Taylor, J., Pavlik, I., El-Zaatari, F., and Tizard, M. (2000) Characterization of IS900 loci in Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and development of multiplex PCR typing. Microbiology 146, 2185–2197.
Amonsin, A., Li, L. L., Zhang, Q., et al. (2004) Multilocus short sequence repeat sequencing approach for differentiating among Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis strains. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 1694–1702.
Dohmann, K., Strommenger, B., Stevenson, K., et al. (2003) Characterization of genetic differences between Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis type I and type II isolates. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41, 5215–5223.
Motiwala, A. S., Strother, M., Amonsin, A., et al. (2003) Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis: evidence for limited strain diversity, strain sharing, and identification of unique targets for diagnosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41, 2015–2026.
Bannantine, J. P., Hansen, J. K., Paustian, M. L., et al. (2004) Expression and immunogenicity of proteins encoded by sequences specific to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 106–114.
van der Werf, T. S., Stinear, T., Stienstra, Y., van der Graaf, W. T., and Small, P. L. (2003) Mycolactones and Mycobacterium ulcerans disease. Lancet 362, 1062–1064.
MacCallum, P., Tolhurst, J. C., Buckle, G., and Sissons, H. A. (1948) A new mycobacterial infection in man. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 60, 93–122.
Clancey, J. K. (1964) Mycobacterial skin ulcers in Uganda: description of a new mycobacterium (Mycobacterium Buruli). J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 88, 175–187.
Decostere, A., Hermans, K., and Haesebrouck, F. (2004) Piscine mycobacteriosis: a literature review covering the agent and the disease it causes in fish and humans. Vet. Microbiol. 99, 159–166.
Stinear, T. P., Mve-Obiang, A., Small, P. L., et al. (2004) Giant plasmid-encoded polyketide synthases produce the macrolide toxin of Mycobacterium ulcerans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 1345–1349.
Gao, L. Y., Guo, S., McLaughlin, B., Morisaki, H., Engel, J. N., and Brown, E. J. (2004) A mycobacterial virulence gene cluster extending RD1 is required for cytolysis, bacterial spreading and ESAT-6 secretion. Mol. Microbiol. 53, 1677–1693.
Chan, K., Knaak, T., Satkamp, L., Humbert, O., Falkow, S., and Ramakrishnan, L. (2002) Complex pattern of Mycobacterium marinum gene expression during long-term granulomatous infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 3920–3925.
Ramakrishnan, L. and Falkow, S. (1994) Mycobacterium marinum persists in cultured mammalian cells in a temperature-restricted fashion. Infect. Immun. 62, 3222–3229.
Ramakrishnan, L., Federspiel, N. A., and Falkow, S. (2000) Granuloma-specific expression of Mycobacterium virulence proteins from the glycine-rich PE-PGRS family. Science 288, 1436–1439.
Ramakrishnan, L., Valdivia, R. H., McKerrow, J. H., and Falkow, S. (1997) Mycobacterium marinum causes both long-term subclinical infection and acute disease in the leopard frog (Rana pipiens). Infect. Immun. 65, 767–773.
Andrew, P. W. and Roberts, I. S. (1993) Construction of a bioluminescent mycobacterium and its use for assay of antimycobacterial agents. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31, 2251–2254.
Mayuri, Bagchi, G., Das, T. K., and Tyagi, J. S. (2002) Molecular analysis of the dormancy response in Mycobacterium smegmatis: expression analysis of genes encoding the DevR-DevS two-component system, Rv3134c and chaperone alpha-crystallin homologues. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 211, 231–237.
Triccas, J. A., Parish, T., Britton, W. J., and Gicquel, B. (1998) An inducible expression system permitting the efficient purification of a recombinant antigen from Mycobacterium smegmatis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 167, 151–156.
Wei, J., Dahl, J. L., Moulder, J. W., et al. (2000) Identification of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis gene that enhances mycobacterial survival in macrophages. J. Bacteriol. 182, 377–384.
Gardner, G. M. and Weiser, R. S. (1947) A bacteriophage for Mycobacterium smegmatis. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 66, 205–206.
Bardarov, S. J., Dou, H., Eisenach, K., et al. (2003) Detection and drug-susceptibility testing of M. tuberculosis from sputum samples using luciferase reporter phage: comparison with the Mycobacteria Growth Indicator Tube (MGIT) system. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 45, 53–61.
Carriere, C., Riska, P. F., Zimhony, O., et al. (1997) Conditionally replicating luciferase reporter phages: improved sensitivity for rapid detection and assessment of drug susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35, 3232–3239.
Hazbon, M. H., Guarin, N., Ferro, B. E., et al. (2003) Photographic and luminometric detection of luciferase reporter phages for drug susceptibility testing of clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41, 4865–4869.
Riska, P. F. and Jacobs, W. R. Jr. (1998) The use of luciferase-reporter phage for antibiotic-susceptibility testing of mycobacteria. Methods Mol. Biol. 101, 431–455.
Riska, P. F., Su, Y., Bardarov, S., et al. (1999) Rapid film-based determination of antibiotic susceptibilities of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains by using a luciferase reporter phage and the Bronx Box. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37, 1144–1149.
Bardarov, S., Bardarov, J. S. J., Pavelka, J. M. J., et al. (2002) Specialized transduction: an efficient method for generating marked and unmarked targeted gene disruptions in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. bovis BCG and M. smegmatis. Microbiology 148, 3007–3017.
Bardarov, S., Kriakov, J., Carriere, C., et al. (1997) Conditionally replicating mycobacteriophages: a system for transposon delivery to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 10,961–10,966.
Jacobs, W. R. Jr., Snapper, S. B., Tuckman, M., and Bloom, B. R. (1989) Mycobacteriophage vector systems. Rev. Infect. Dis. 11, S404–S410.
Pearson, R. E., Jurgensen, S., Sarkis, G. J., Hatfull, G. F., and Jacobs, W. R. J. (1996) Construction of D29 shuttle phasmids and luciferase reporter phages for detection of mycobacteria. Gene 183, 129–136.
Jacobs, W. R. J., Tuckman, M., and Bloom, B. R. (1987) Introduction of foreign DNA into mycobacteria using a shuttle phasmid. Nature 327, 532–535.
Pedulla, M. L., Ford, M. E., Houtz, J. M., et al. (2003) Origins of highly mosaic mycobacteriophage genomes. Cell 113, 171–182.
Hendrix, R. W., Smith, M. C., Burns, R. N., Ford, M. E., and Hatfull, G. F. (1999) Evolutionary relationships among diverse bacteriophages and prophages: all the world’s a phage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96, 2192–2197.
Hatfull, G. F. and Sarkis, G. J. (1993) DNA sequence, structure and gene expression of mycobacteriophage L5: a phage system for mycobacterial genetics. Mol. Microbiol. 7, 395–405.
Ford, M. E., Sarkis, G. J., Belanger, A. E., Hendrix, R. W., and Hatfull, G. F. (1998) Genome structure of mycobacteriophage D29: implications for phage evolution. J. Mol. Biol. 279, 143–164.
Ford, M. E., Stenstrom, C., Hendrix, R. W., and Hatfull, G. F. (1998) Mycobacteriophage TM4: genome structure and gene expression. Tuber. Lung Dis. 79, 63–73.
Mediavilla, J., Jain, S., Kriakov, J., et al. (2000) Genome organization and characterization of mycobacteriophage Bxb1. Mol. Microbiol. 38, 955–970.
Marmiesse, M., Brodin, P., Buchrieser, C., et al. (2004) Macro-array and bioinformatic analyses reveal mycobacterial ‘core’ genes, variation in the ESAT-6 gene family and new phylogenetic markers for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Microbiology 150, 483–496.
Brennan, P. J. (2003) Structure, function, and biogenesis of the cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 83, 91–97.
Brennan, P. J. and Nikaido, H. (1995) The envelope of mycobacteria. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 64, 29–63.
Liu, J. and Nikaido, H. (1999) A mutant in Mycobacterium smegmatis defective in the biosynthesis of mycolic acids accumulates meromycolates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96, 4011–4016.
Kolattukudy, P. E., Fernandes, N. D., Azad, A. K., Fitzmaurice, A. M., and Sirakova, T. D. (1997) Biochemistry and molecular genetics of cell-wall lipid biosynthesis in mycobacteria. Mol. Microbiol. 24, 263–270.
Liu, J., Barry, C. E., Besra, G. S., and Nikaido, H. (1996) Mycolic acid structure determines the fluidity of the mycobacterial cell wall. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 29,545–29,551.
Liu, J., Rosenberg, E. Y., and Nikaido, H. (1995) Fluidity of the lipid domain of cell wall from Mycobacterium chelonae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 11,254–11,258.
Minnikin, D. E., Kremer, L., Dover, L. G., and Besra, G. S. (2002) The methyl-branched fortifications of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Chem. Biol. 9, 545–553.
Cox, J. S., Chen, B., McNeil, M., and Jacobs, W. R. J. (1999) Complex lipid determines tissue-specific replication of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in mice. Nature 402, 79–83.
Nigou, J., Gilleron, M., and Puzo, G. (2003) Lipoarabinomannans: from structure to biosynthesis. Biochimie 85, 153–166.
Adindla, S. and Guruprasad, L. (2003) Sequence analysis corresponding to the PPE and PE proteins in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other genomes. J. Biosci. 28, 169–179.
Sampson, S. L., Lukey, P., Warren, R. M., van Helden, P. D., Richardson, M., and Everett, M. J. (2001) Expression, characterization and subcellular localization of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis PPE gene Rv1917c. Tuberculosis 81, 305–317.
Choudhary, R. K., Mukhopadhyay, S., Chakhaiyar, P., et al. (2003) PPE antigen Rv2430c of Mycobacterium tuberculosis induces a strong B-cell response. Infect. Immun. 71, 6338–6343.
Okkels, L. M., Brock, I., Follmann, F., et al. (2003) PPE protein (Rv3873) from DNA segment RD1 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: strong recognition of both specific T-cell epitopes and epitopes conserved within the PPE family. Infect. Immun. 71, 6116–6123.
Zubrzycki, I. Z. (2004) Analysis of the products of genes encompassed by the theoretically predicted pathogenicity islands of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis. Proteins 54, 563–568.
Sassetti, C. M. and Rubin, E. J. (2003) Genetic requirements for mycobacterial survival during infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 12,989–12,994.
Andersen, P., Andersen, A. B., Sorensen, A. L., and Nagai, S. (1995) Recall of longlived immunity to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in mice. J. Immunol. 154, 3359–3372.
Berthet, F. X., Rasmussen, P. B., Rosenkrands, I., Andersen, P., and Gicquel, B. (1998) A Mycobacterium tuberculosis operon encoding ESAT-6 and a novel low-molecularmass culture filtrate protein (CFP-10). Microbiology 144, 3195–3203.
Hsu, T., Hingley-Wilson, S. M., Chen, B., et al. (2003) The primary mechanism of attenuation of bacillus Calmette-Guerin is a loss of secreted lytic function required for invasion of lung interstitial tissue. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 12,420–12,425.
Sorensen, A. L., Nagai, S., Houen, G., Andersen, P., and Andersen, A. B. (1995) Purification and characterization of a low-molecular-mass T-cell antigen secreted by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 63, 1710–1717.
Okkels, L. M. and Andersen, P. (2004) Protein-protein interactions of proteins from the ESAT-6 family of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Bacteriol. 186, 2487–2491.
Gey, V. P. N., Gamieldien, J., Hide, W., Brown, G. D., Siezen, R. J., and Beyers, A. D. (2001) The ESAT-6 gene cluster of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other high G+C Grampositive bacteria. Genome Biol. 2, 1–18.
van Pinxteren, L. A., Ravn, P., Agger, E. M., Pollock, J., and Andersen, P. (2000) Diagnosis of tuberculosis based on the two specific antigens ESAT-6 and CFP10. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 7, 155–160.
Collins, D. M., Kawakami, R. P., Wards, B. J., Campbell, S., and de Lisle, G. W. (2003) Vaccine and skin testing properties of two avirulent Mycobacterium bovis mutants with and without an additional esat-6 mutation. Tuberculosis 83, 361–366.
Wards, B. J., de Lisle, G. W., and Collins, D. M. (2000) An esat6 knockout mutant of Mycobacterium bovis produced by homologous recombination will contribute to the development of a live tuberculosis vaccine. Tuber. Lung Dis. 80, 185–189.
Brandt, L., Elhay, M., Rosenkrands, I., Lindblad, E. B., and Andersen, P. (2000) ESAT-6 subunit vaccination against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 68, 791–795.
Mollenkopf, H. J., Groine-Triebkorn, D., Andersen, P., Hess, J., and Kaufmann, S. H. (2001) Protective efficacy against tuberculosis of ESAT-6 secreted by a live Salmonella typhimurium vaccine carrier strain and expressed by naked DNA. Vaccine 19, 4028–4035.
Mustafa, A. S. and Al-Attiyah, R. (2003) Tuberculosis: looking beyond BCG vaccines. J. Postgrad. Med. 49, 134–140.
Olsen, A. W., Hansen, P. R., Holm, A., and Andersen, P. (2000) Efficient protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis by vaccination with a single subdominant epitope from the ESAT-6 antigen. Eur. J. Immunol. 30, 1724–1732.
Haile, Y., Caugant, D. A., Bjune, G., and Wiker, H. G. (2002) Mycobacterium tuberculosis mammalian cell entry operon (mce) homologs in Mycobacterium other than tuberculosis (MOTT). FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 33, 125–132.
Arruda, S., Bomfim, G., Knights, R., Huima-Byron, T., and Riley, L. W. (1993) Cloning of an M. tuberculosis DNA fragment associated with entry and survival inside cells. Science 261, 1454–1457.
Kumar, A., Bose, M., and Brahmachari, V. (2003) Analysis of expression profile of mammalian cell entry (mce) operons of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 71, 6083–6087.
Das, A. K., Mitra, D., Harboe, M., et al. (2003) Predicted molecular structure of the mammalian cell entry protein Mce1A of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 302, 442–447.
Chitale, S., Ehrt, S., Kawamura, I., et al. (2001) Recombinant Mycobacterium tuberculosis protein associated with mammalian cell entry. Cell Microbiol. 3, 247–254.
Shimono, N., Morici, L., Casali, N., et al. (2003) Hypervirulent mutant of Mycobacterium tuberculosis resulting from disruption of the mce1 operon. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 15,918–15,923.
Mukamolova, G. V., Kaprelyants, A. S., Young, D. I., Young, M., and Kell, D. B. (1998) A bacterial cytokine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 8916–8921.
Mukamolova, G. V., Turapov, O. A., Young, D. I., Kaprelyants, A. S., Kell, D. B., and Young, M. (2002) A family of autocrine growth factors in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Mol. Microbiol. 46, 623–635.
Shleeva, M., Mukamolova, G. V., Young, M., Williams, H. D., and Kaprelyants, A. S. (2004) Formation of ‘non-culturable’ cells of Mycobacterium smegmatis in stationary phase in response to growth under suboptimal conditions and their Rpf-mediated resuscitation. Microbiology 150, 1687–1697.
Tufariello, J. M., Jacobs, W. R. Jr., and Chan, J. (2004) Individual Mycobacterium tuberculosis resuscitation-promoting factor homologues are dispensable for growth in vitro and in vivo. Infect. Immun. 72, 515–526.
Yeremeev, V. V., Kondratieva, T. K., Rubakova, E. I., et al. (2003) Proteins of the Rpf family: immune cell reactivity and vaccination efficacy against tuberculosis in mice. Infect. Immun. 71, 4789–4794.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2006 Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Alexander, D.C., Liu, J. (2006). Mycobacterial Genomes. In: Chan, V.L., Sherman, P.M., Bourke, B. (eds) Bacterial Genomes and Infectious Diseases. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-152-9_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-152-9_9
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-496-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-59745-152-9
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)