Abstract
There are currently no vector systems available that are efficient enough or targeted enough to transduce all of the tumor cells in a patient with even a single copy of a therapeutic gene (1–4). Ideally, therefore, the genes used for gene transfer therapy of cancer should be able to achieve two major goals. The first is to kill tumor cells locally with high efficiency. The second is to stimulate potent antitumor immunity such that distant metastases, to which genes cannot be delivered, can also be eradicated.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Verma, I. and Somia, N. (1977) Gene therapy—promises, problems and prospects. Nature 389, 239–242.
Vile, R. G., Sunassee, K., and Diaz, R. M. (1998) Strategies for achieving multiple layers of selectivity in gene therapy. Mol. Med. Today 4, 84–92.
Vile, R. G., Russell, S. J., and Lemoine, N. R. (2000) Cancer gene therapy: hard lessons and new courses. Gene Ther. 7, 2–8.
Harrington, H., Alvarez-Vallina, L., Crittenden, M., et al. (2002) Cells as vehicles for cancer gene therapy: the missing link between targeted vectors and systemic delivery? Hum. Gene Ther. 13, 1263–1280.
Colombo, M. P. and Forni, G. (1996) Immunotherapy: cytokine gene transfer strategies. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 15, 317–328.
Vile, R. G. and Chong, H. (1996) Immunotherapy: combinatorial molecular immunotherapy—a synthesis and suggestions. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 15, 351–364.
Moolten, F. L. (1994) Drug sensitivity (“suicide”) genes for selective cancer chemotherapy. Cancer Gene Ther. 1, 279–287.
Vile, R. G. and Hart, I. R. (1994) Targeting of cytokine gene expression to malignant melanoma cells using tissue-specific promoter sequences. Ann. Oncol. 5, S59–S65.
Castleden, S. A., Chong, H., Garcia-Ribas, I., et al. (1997) A family of bicistronic vectors to enhance both local and systemic anti tumour effects of HSVtk or cytokine expression in a murine melanoma model. Hum. Gene Ther. 8, 2087–2102.
Chong, H., Hutchinson, G., Hart, I. R., and Vile, R. G. (1998) Expression of B7 co-stimulatory molecules by B16 melanoma results in a natural killer cell-dependent local anti tumour response, but induces T cell-dependent systemic immunity only against B7-expressing tumours. Br. J. Cancer 78, 1043–1050.
Diaz, R. M., Todryk, S., Chong, H., et al. (1998) Rapid adenoviral transduction of freshly resected tumour explants with therapeutically useful genes provides a rationale for genetic immunotherapy for colorectal cancer. Gene Ther. 5, 869–879.
Vile, R. G. and Hart, I. R. (1993) In vitro and in vivo targeting of gene expression to melanoma cells. Cancer Res. 53, 962–967.
Vile, R. G. and Hart, I. R. (1993) Use of tissue-specific expression of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene to inhibit growth of established murine melanomas following direct intratumoral injection of DNA. Cancer Res. 53, 3860–3864.
Vile, R. G., Nelson, J. A., Castleden, S., Chong, H., and Hart, I. R. (1994) Systemic gene therapy of murine melanoma using tissue specific expression of the HSVtk gene involves an immune component. Cancer Res. 54, 6228–6234.
Vile, R. G., Miller, N., Chernajovsky, Y., and Hart, I. R. (1994) A comparison of the properties of different retroviral vectors containing the murine tyrosinase promoter to achieve transcriptionally targeted expression of the HSVtk or IL-2 genes. Gene Ther. 1, 307–316.
Chong, H., Todryk, S., Hutchinson, G., Hart, I. R., and Vile, R. G. (1998) Tumour cell expression of B7 costimulatory molecules and interleukin-12 or granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor induces a local antitumour response and may generate systemic protective immunity. Gene Ther. 5, 223–232.
Chester, J., Ruchatz, A., Gough, M., et al. (2002) Tumor antigen-specific induction of transcriptionally targeted retroviral vectors from chimeric immune receptor-modified T cells. Nat. Biotechnol. 20, 256–263.
Harrington, K. J., Melcher, A. A., Bateman, A. R., Ahmed, A., and Vile, R. G. (2002) Cancer gene therapy: Part 2. Candidate transgenes and their clinical development. Clin. Oncol. (R. Coll. Radiol.) 14, 148–169.
Fielding, A. K., Chapel-Fernandes, S., Chadwick, M. P., et al. (2000) A hyperfusogenic gibbon ape leukaemia envelope glycoprotein: targeting of a cytotoxic gene by ligand display. Hum. Gene Ther. 11, 817–826.
Bateman, A., Bullough, F., Murphy, S., et al. (2000) Fusogenic membrane glycoproteins as a novel class of genes for the local and immune-mediated control of tumor growth. Cancer Res. 60, 1492–1497.
Diaz, R. M., Bateman, A., Emiliusen, L., et al. (2000) A lentiviral vector expressing a fusogenic glycoprotein for cancer gene therapy. Gene Ther. 7, 1656–1663.
Higuchi, H., Bronk, S., Bateman, A., Harrington, K. J., Vile, R. G., and Gores, G. J. (2000) Viral fusogenic membrane glycoprotein expression causes syncytia formation with bioenergetic cell death: implications for gene therapy. Cancer Res. 60, 6396–6402.
Pardoll, D. M. (1995) Paracrine cytokine adjuvants in cancer immunotherapy. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 13, 399–415.
Melcher, A. A., Todryk, S., Hardwick, N., Ford, M., Jacobson, M., and Vile, R. G. (1998) Tumor immunogenicity is determined by the mechanism of cell death via induction of heat shock protein expression. Nat. Med. 4, 581–587.
Melcher, A. A., Gough, M. J., Todryk, S., and Vile, R. G. (1999) Apoptosis or necrosis for tumour immunotherapy—what’s in a name? J. Mol. Med. 77, 824–833.
Basu, S., Binder, R. J., Suto, R., Anderson, K. M., and Srivastava, P. K. (2000) Necrotic but not apoptotic cell death releases heat shock proteins, which deliver a partial maturation signal to dendritic cells and activate the NF-kappaB pathway. Int. Immunol. 12, 1539–1546.
Gallucci, S., Lolkema, M., and Matzinger, P. (1999) Natural adjuvants: endogenous activators of dendritic cells. Nat. Med. 5, 1249–1255.
Savill, J. and Fadok, V. (2000) Corpse clearance defines the meaning of cell death. Nature 407, 784–788.
Gough, M. J., Melcher, A. A., Ahmed, A., et al. (2001) Macrophages orchestrate the immune response to tumor cell death. Cancer Res. 61, 7240–7247.
Leist, M. and Jaattela, M. (2001) Four deaths and a funeral: from caspases to alternative mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2, 589–598.
Kitanaka, C. and Kuchino, Y. (1999) Caspase-independent programmed cell death with necrotic morphology. Cell Death Differ. 6, 508–515.
Clarke, P. G. (1990) Developmental cell death: morphological diversity and multiple mechanisms. Anat. Embryol. (Berl.) 181, 195–213.
Hengartner, M. O. (2000) The biochemistry of apoptosis. Nature 407, 770–776.
Denecker, G., Vercammen, D., Declercq, W., and Vandenabeele, P. (2001) Apoptotic and necrotic cell death induced by death domain receptors. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 58, 356–370.
Bateman, A., Harrington, K., Kottke, T., et al. (2002) Viral fusogenic membrane glycoproteins kill solid tumor cells by non-apoptotic mechanisms which promote cross presentation of tumor antigens by dendritic cells. Cancer Res. 62, 5466–6578.
Dunn, W. A. J. (1994) Autophagy and related mechanisms of lysosome-mediated protein degradation. Trends Cell Biol. 4, 139–143.
Liang, X. H., Jackson, S., Seaman, M., et al. (1999) Induction of autophagy and inhibition of tumorigenesis by beclin 1. Nature 402, 672–676.
Freeman, S. M., Ramesh, R., and Marrogi, A. J. (1997) Immune system in suicide gene therapy. Lancet 349, 2–3.
Reiter, I., Krammer, B., and Schwamberger, G. (1999) Cutting edge: differential effect of apoptotic versus necrotic tumor cells on macrophage antitumor activities. J. Immunol. 163, 1730–1732.
Albert, M. L., Sauter, B., and Bhardwaj, N. (1998) Dendritic cells acquire antigen from apoptotic cells and induce class I-restricted CTLs. Nature 392, 86–89.
Bellone, M., Iezzi, G., Rovere, P., et al. (1997) Processing of engulfed apoptotic bodies yields T cell epitopes. J. Immunol. 159, 5391–5399.
Matzinger, P. (1994) Tolerance, danger and the extended family. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 12, 991–1045.
Wolfers, J., Lozier, A., Raposo, G., et al. (2001) Tumor-derived exosomes are a source of shared tumor rejection antigens for CTL cross-priming. Nat. Med. 7, 297–303.
Clayton, A., Court, J., Navabi, H., et al. (2001) Analysis of antigen presenting cell derived exosomes, based on immunomagnetic isolation and flow cytometry. J. Immunol. Methods 247, 163–174.
Thery, C., Zitvogel, L., and Amigorena, S. (2002) Exosomes: composition, biogenesis and function. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2, 569–579.
Andre, F., Schartz, N. E., Movassagh, M., et al. (2002) Malignant effusions and immunogenic tumour-derived exosomes. Lancet 360, 295–305.
Dolo, V., Ginestra, A., Cassara, D., et al. (1998) Selective localisation of matrix metalloproteinase 9, beta 1 integrins, and human lymphocyte antigen class I molecules on membrane vesicles shed by 8701-BC breast carcinoma cells. Cancer Res. 58, 4468–4474.
Karlsson, M. (2001) Tolerosomes are produced by intestinal epithelial cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 31, 2892–2900.
Steinman, R. M., Turley, S., Mellman, I., and Inaba, K. (2000) The induction of tolerance by dendritic cells that have captured apoptotic cells [comment]. J. Exp. Med. 191, 411–416.
Brown, G., Aitken, J., Rixon, H. W., and Sugrue, R. J. (2002) Caveolin-1 is incorporated into mature respiratory syncytial virus particles during virus assembly on the surface of virus infected cells. J. Gen. Virol. 83, 611–621.
Marrack, P., Kappler, J., and Kotzin, B. L. (2001) Autoimmune disease: why and where it occurs. Nat. Med. 7, 899–905.
Blond, J. L., Lavillette, D., Cheynet, V., et al. (2000) An envelope glycoprotein of the human endogenous retrovirus HERV-W is expressed in the human placenta and fuses cells expressing the type D mammalian retrovirus receptor. J. Virol. 74, 3321–3329.
Mi, S., Lee, X., Li, X., et al. (2000) Syncytin is a captive retroviral envelope protein involved in human placental morphogenesis. Nature 403, 785–789.
Linardakis, E., Bateman, A., Phan, V., et al. (2002) Enhancing the efficacy of a weak allogeneic melanoma vaccine by viral fusogenic membrane glycoprotein-mediated tumor cell-tumor cell fusion. CancerRes. 62, 5495–5504.
Mandelboim, O., Lieberman, N., Lev, M., et al. (2001) Recognition of haemagglutinins on virus-infected cells by NKp46 activates lysis by human NK cells. Nature 409, 1055–1060.
Eslahi, N. K., Muller, S., Nguyen, L., et al. (2001) Fusogenic activity of vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein plasmid in tumors as an enhancer of IL-12 gene therapy. Cancer Gene Ther. 8, 55–62.
Schirrmacher, V., Haas, C., Bonifer, R., Ahlert, T., Gerhards, R., and Ertel, C. (1999) Human tumor cell modification by virus infection: an efficient and safe way to produce cancer vaccine with pleiotropic immune stimulatory properties when using Newcastle disease virus. Gene Ther. 6, 63–73.
Prehn, R. T. (1993) Two competing influences that may explain concomitant tumor resistance. Cancer Res. 53, 3266–3269.
Cavallo, F., Giovarrelli, M., Gulino, A., et al. (1992) Role of neutrophils and CD4+ T lymphocytes in the primary and memory response to nonimmunogenic murine mammary adenocarcinoma made immunogenic by IL-2 gene transfer. J. Immunol. 149, 3627–3635.
Cayeux, S., Richter, G., Becker, C., Pezzutto, A., Dorken, B., and Blankenstein, T. (1999) Direct and indirect T cell priming by dendritic cell vaccines. Eur. J. Immunol. 29, 255–234.
Huang, A. Y. C., Bruce, A. T., Pardoll, D. M., and Levitsky, H. I. (1996) In vivo cross-priming of MHC class I-restricted antigens requires a TAP transporter. Immunity 4, 349–355.
Forni, G., Lollini, P. L., Musiani, P., and Colombo, M. P. (2000) Immunoprevention of cancer: is the time ripe? Cancer Res. 60, 2571–2575.
Walden, P. (2000) Hybrid cell vaccination for cancer immunotherapy. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 465, 347–354.
Stuhler, G. and Walden, P. (1994) Recruitment of helper T cells for induction of tumour rejection by cytolytic T lymphocytes. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 39, 342–345.
Stuhler, G., Trefzer, U., and Walden, P. (1998) Hybrid cell vaccination in cancer immunotherapy. Recruitment and activation of T cell help for induction of antitumour cytotoxic T cells. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 451, 277–282.
Guo, Y., Wu, M., Chen, H., et al. (1994) Effective tumor vaccine generated by fusion of hepatoma cells with activated B cells. Science 263, 518–520.
Gong, J., Avigan, D., Chen, D., et al. (2000) Activation of antitumor cytotoxic T lymphocytes by fusions of human dendritic cells and breast carcinoma cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 2715–2718.
Tanaka, Y., Koido, S., Chen, D., Gendler, S. J., Kufe, D., and Gong, J. (2001) Vaccination with allogeneic dendritic cells fused to carcinoma cells induces antitumor immunity in MUC1 transgenic mice. Clin. Immunol. 101, 192–200.
Gong, J., Chen, D., Kashiwaba, M., and Kufe, D. (1997) Induction of antitumor activity by immunization with fusions of dendritic and carcinoma cells. Nat. Med. 3, 558–561.
Homma, S., Toda, G., Gong, J., Kufe, D., and Ohno, T. (2001) Preventive antitumor activity against hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) induced by immunization with fusions of dendritic cells and HCC cells in mice. J. Gastroenterol. 36, 764–771.
Gong, J., Apostolopoulos, V., Chen, D., et al. (2000) Selection and characterization of MUC1-specific CD8+ T cells from MUC1 transgenic mice immunized with dendritic-carcinoma fusion cells. Immunology 101, 316–324.
Gong, J., Chen, D., Kashiwaba, M., et al. (1998) Reversal of tolerance to human MUC1 antigen in MUC1 transgenic mice immunized with fusions of dendritic and carcinoma cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 6279–6283.
Souberbielle, B. E., Westby, M., Ganz, S., et al. (1998) Comparison of four strategies for tumour vaccination in the B16-F10 melanoma model. Gene Ther. 5, 1447–1454.
Dunnion, D. J., Cywinski, A. L., Tucker, V. C., et al. (1999) Human antigen-presenting cell/tumour cell hybrids stimulate strong allogeneic responses and present tumour-associated antigens to cytotoxic T cells in vitro. Immunology 98, 541–550.
Trefzer, U., Weingart, G., Chen, Y., et al. (2000) Hybrid cell vaccination for cancer immune therapy: first clinical trial with metastatic melanoma. Int. J. Cancer 85, 618–626.
Kikuchi, T., Akasaki, Y., Irie, M., Homma, S., Abe, T., and Ohno, T. (2001) Results of a phase I clinical trial of vaccination of glioma patients with fusions of dendritic and glioma cells. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 50, 337–344.
Koido, S., Tanaka, Y., Chen, D., Kufe, D., and Gong, J. (2002) The kinetics of in vivo priming of CD4 and CD8 T cells by dendritic/tumor fusion cells in MUC1-transgenic mice. J. Immunol. 168, 2111–2117.
Scott-Taylor, T. H., Pettengell, R., Clarke, I., et al. (2000) Human tumour and dendritic cell hybrids generated by electrofusion: potential for cancer vaccines. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1500, 265–279.
Trefzer, U., Herberth, G., Sterry, W., and Walden, P. (2000) The hybrid cell vaccination approach to cancer immunotherapy. Ernst Schering Res. Found. Workshop 154–166.
Kugler, A., Stuhler, G., Walden, P., et al. (2000) Regression of human metastatic renal cell carcinoma after vaccination with tumor cell-dendritic cell hybrids. Nat. Med. 6, 332–336.
Trefzer, U., Weingart, G., Sterry, W., and Walden, P. (2000) Hybrid cell vaccination in patients with metastatic melanoma. Methods Mol. Med. 35, 469–475.
Plautz, G. E., Yang, Z.-Y., Wu, B.-Y., Gao, X., Huang, L., and Nabel, G. J. (1993) Immunotherapy of malignancy by in vivo gene transfer into tumors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 4645–4649.
Ram, Z., Culver, K. W., Oshiro, E. M., et al. (1997) Therapy of malignant brain tumors by intratumoral implantation of retroviral vector-producing cells. Nat. Med. 3, 1354–1361.
Russell, S. J. (1994) Replicating vectors for cancer therapy: a question of strategy. Semin. Cancer Biol. 5, 437–443.
Russell, S. J. (1994) Replicating vectors for gene therapy of cancer: risks, limitations and prospects. Eur. J. Cancer 30A, 1165–1171.
Alemany, R., Balague, C., and Curiel, D. T. (2000) Replicative adenoviruses for cancer therapy. Nat. Biotechnol. 18, 723–727.
Curiel, D. T. (2000) The development of conditionally replicative adenoviruses for cancer therapy. Clin. Cancer Res. 6, 3395–3399.
Nemunaitis, J., Khuri, F., Ganly, I., et al. (2001) Phase II trial of intratumoral administration of ONYX-015, a replication-selective adenovirus, in patients with refractory head and neck cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 19, 289–298.
Heise, C., Hermiston, T., Johnson, L., et al. (2000) An adenovirus E1A mutant that demonstrates potent and selective systemic anti-tumoral efficacy. Nat. Med. 6, 1134–1139.
Kirn, D. H. (2000) A tale of two trials: selectively replicating herpesviruses for brain tumors. Gene Ther. 7, 815–816.
Kirn, D., Martuza, R. L., and Zwiebel, J. (2001) Replication-selective virotherapy for cancer: biological principles, risk management and future directions. Nat. Med. 7, 781–787.
Vile, R. G. (2001) Vironcology-not yet, but soon? Nat. Biotechnol. 19, 1020–1022.
Vile, R. G., Ando, D., and Kirn, D. H. (2002) The oncolytic virotherapy treatment platform for cancer: unique biological and biosafety points to consider. Cancer Gene Ther. 9, 1062–1067.
Logg, C. R., Tai, C. K., Logg, A., Anderson, W. F., and Kasahara, N. (2001) A uniquely stable replication-competent retrovirus vector achieves efficient gene delivery in vitro and in solid tumors. Hum. Gene Ther. 12, 921–932.
Grote, D., Russell, S. J., Cornu, T. I., etal. (2001) Live attenuated measles virus induces regression of human lymphoma xenografts in immunodeficient mice. Blood 97, 3746–3754.
Peng, K.-W., Ahmann, G. J., Pham, L., Greipp, P. R., Cattaneo, R., and Russell, S. J. (2001) Systemic therapy of myeloma xenografts by an attenutaed measles virus. Blood 98, 2002–2007.
Freytag, S. O., Khil, M., Stricker, H., et al. (2002) Phase I study of replication-competent adenovirus-mediated double suicide gene therapy for the treatment of locally recurrent prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 62, 4968–4976.
Krasnykh, V., Belousova, N., Korokhov, N., Mikheeva, G., and Curiel, D. T. (2001) Genetic targeting of an adenovirus vector via replacement of the fiber protein with the phage T4 fibritin. J. Virol. 75, 4176–4183.
Rodriguez, R., Schuur, E. R., Lim, H. Y., Henderson, G. A., Simons, J. W., and Henderson, D. R. (1997) Prostate attenuated replication competent adenovirus (ARCA) CN706: a selective cytotoxic for prostate-specific antigen-positive prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res. 57, 2559–2563.
Bischoff, J., Kirn, D. H., Williams, A., et al. (1996) An adenovirus mutant that replicates selectively in p53-deficient human tumor cells. Science 274, 373–376.
Ramachandra, M., Rahman, A., Zou, A., et al. (2001) Reengineering adenovirus regulatory pathways to enhance oncolytic specificity and efficacy. Nat. Biotechnol. 19, 1035–1041.
Ahmed, A., Suzuki, K., Kottke, T., et al. (2003) Intratumoral expression of a fusogenic membrane glycoprotein enhances the efficacy of replicating adenovirus therapy. Gene Ther. 10, 1663–1671.
Li, H., Haviv, Y. S., Derdeyn, C. A., et al. (2001) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1-mediated syncytium formation is compatible with adenovirus replication and facilitates efficient dispersion of viral gene products and De Novo-synthesized virus particles. Hum. Gene Ther. 12, 2155–2165.
Bateman, A. (2002) FMG: a cancer gene therapy. Ph.D. thesis, Open University, London, UK.
Fu, X., Tao, L., Jin, A., Vile, R., Brenner, M. K., and Zhang, X. (2003) Expression of a fusogenic membrane glycoprotein by an oncolytic herpes simplex virus provides potent synergistic anti-tumor effect. Mol. Ther. 7, 784–786.
Sauter, B., Albert, M. L., Francisco, L., Larsson, M., Somersan, S., and Bhardwaj, N. (2000) Consequences of cell death: exposure to necrotic tumor cells, but not primary tissue cells or apoptotic cells, induces the maturation of immunostimulatory dendritic cells. J. Exp. Med. 191, 423–434.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bateman, A., Phan, V., Melcher, A., Linardakis, E., Harrington, K., Vile, R. (2005). Fusogeneic Membrane Glycoproteins for Cancer Gene Therapy. In: Curiel, D.T., Douglas, J.T. (eds) Cancer Gene Therapy. Contemporary Cancer Research. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-785-7_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-785-7_6
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-213-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-785-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)