Abstract
Menkes disease (MNK) is an X-linked recessive disorder characterized by progressive neuronal degeneration and connective tissue abnormalities, first described by Menkes and co-workers in 1962 (1). In 1972, Danks et al. demonstrated that MNK is associated with copper deficiency as a result of a defect in intestinal copper absorption, which results in copper accumulation in the intestine (2,3). This observation, together with the discovery of a mutant strain of mice serving as a model of MNK, mottled mutant mice, led to many studies on copper metabolism and the pathophysiology of this disease (4,5). Moreover, patients with a milder MNK phenotype have been reported. These patients are generally said to have “mild MNK,” whereas the typical phenotype is referred to as “classical MNK.” In this chapter, classical MNK and mild MNK are referred to as MNK and mild MNK, respectively. Occipital horn syndrome (OHS), first described by Lazoff et al. in 1975 (6), is considered to represent the mildest form of MNK.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Menkes, J. H., Alter, M., Steigleder, G. K., Weakley, D. R., and Sung, J. H. (1962) A sex-linked recessive disorder with retardation of growth, peculiar hair, and focal cerebral and cerebellar degeneration. Pediatrics 29, 764–769.
Danks, D. M., Campbell, P. E., Stevens, B. J., Mayne, V., and Cartwright, E. (1972) Menkes’ kinky hair syndrome: an inherited defect in copper absorption with widespread effects. Pediatrics 50, 188–201.
Danks, D. M., Cartwright, E., Stevens,B. J., and Townley, R. R. W. (1973) Menkes’ kinky hair disease. Further definition of the defect in copper transport. Science. 179, 1140–1142.
Hunt, D. M. (1974) Primary defect in coppert transport underlies mottled mutants in the mouse. Nature 249, 852–853.
Nishimura, M. (1975) A new mutant mouse, macular(ML). Exp. Anim. 24, 185 (in Japanese).
Lazoff, S. G., Ryback, J. J., Parker, B. R., and Luzzatti, L. (1975) Skeletal dysplasia, occipital horns, diarrhea and obstructive uropathy: a new hereditary syndrome. Birth Defects 11, 71–74.
Vulpe, C., Levinson, B., Whitney, S., Packman, S., and Gitschier, J. (1993) Isolation of a candidate gene for Menkes disease and evidence that it encodes a copper-transporting ATPase. Nature Genet. 3, 7–13.
Chelly, J., Tiimer, Z., TOnnesen, T., Petterson, A., Ishikawa-Brush, Y., Tommerup, N., et al. (1993) Isolation of a candidate gene for Menkes disease that encodes a potential heavy metal binding protein. Nature Genet. 3, 14–19.
Mercer, J. F., Livingston, J., Hall, B., Paynter, J. A., Begy, C., Chandrasekharappa, S., et al. (1993) Isolation of a partial candidate gene for Menkes disease by positional cloning. Nature Genet. 3, 20–25.
Kaler, S. G., Gallo, L. K., Proud, V. K., Percy, A. K., Mark, Y., Segal, N. A., et al. (1994) Occipital horn syndrome and a mild Menkes phenotype associated with splice site mutations at the MNK locus. Nature Genet. 8, 195–202.
Das, S., Levinson, B., Vulpe, C., Whitney, S., Gitschier, J., and Packman, S. (1995) Similar splicing mutations of the Menkes/mottled copper-transporting ATPase gene in occipital horn syndrome and the blotchy mouse. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 56, 570–576.
Levinson, B., Vulpe, C., Elder, B., Martin, C., Verley, F., Packman, S., et al. (1994) The mottled gene is the mouse homologue of the Menkes disease gene. Nature Genet. 6, 369–373.
Cecchi, C., Biasotto, M., Tosi, M., and Avner P. (1997) The mottled mouse as a model for human Menkes disease: identification of mutations in the Atp7a gene. Hum. Mol. Genet. 6, 425–433.
Grimes, A., Hearn, C. J., Lockhart, P., Newgreen, D. F., and Mercer J. F. B. (1997) Molecular basis of the brindled mouse mutant (Mobr): a murine model of Menkes disease. Hum. Mol. Genet. 6, 1037–1042.
Reed, V. and Boyd, Y. (1997) Mutation analysis provides additional evidence that mottled is the mouse homologue of Menkes’ disease. Hum. Mol. Genet. 6, 417–423.
Murata, Y., Kodama, H., Abe, T., Ishida, N., Nishimura, M., Levinson, B., et al. (1997) Mutation analysis and expression of the mottled gene in the macular mouse model of Menkes disease. Pediatr. Res. 42, 436–442.
Petris, M. J., Mercer, J. F. B., Culvenor, J. G., Lockhart, P., Gleeson, P. A., and Camakaris, J. (1996) Ligand-regulated transport of the Menkes copper Ptype ATPase efflux pump from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane: a novel mechanism of regulated trafficking. EMBO 15, 6084–6095.
Goodyer, I. D., Jones, E. E., Monaco, A. P., and Francis, M. J. (1999) Characterization of the Menkes protein copper-binding domains and their role in copper-induced protein relocalization. Hum. Mol. Genet. 8, 1473–1478.
Tümer, Z., Moller, L. B., and Horn, N. (1999) Mutation spectrum of ATP7A, the gene defective in Menkes disease. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 448, 83–95.
Ambrosini, L. and Mercer, J. F. (1999) Defective copper-induced trafficking and of the Menkes protein in patients with mild and copper-treated classical Menkes disease localization. Hum. Mol. Genet. 8, 1547–1555.
Levinson, B., Conant, R., Schnur, R., Das, S., Packman, S., and Gitschier J. (1996) A repeated element in the regulatory region of the MNK gene and its deletion in a patient with occipital horn syndrome. Hum. Mol. Genet. 5, 1737–1742.
Moller, L.B., Tümer, Z., Lund, C., Petersen, C., Cole, T., Hanusch, R., et al. (2000) Similar splice-site mutations of the ATP7A gene lead to different phenotypes: classical menkes disease or occipital horn syndrome. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 66, 1211–1220.
Gu, Y. H., Kodama, H., Murata, Y., Mochizuki, D., Yanagawa, Y., Ushijima, H., et al. (2001) ATP7A gene mutation in 16 patients with Menkes disease and a patient with occipital horn syndrome. Am. J. Med. Genet. 217–222.
Ronce, N., Moizard, M. P., Robb, L., Toutain, A., Villard, L., and Moraine C. (1997) A C2055T transition in exon 8 of the ATP7A gene is associated with exon skipping in an occipital horn syndrome family. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 61, 233–238.
Qi, M. and Byers, P. H. (1998) Constitutive skipping of alternatively spliced exon 10 in the ATP7A gene abolishes Golgi localization of the menkes protein and produces the occipital horn syndrome. Hum. Mol. Genet. 7, 465–469.
Geller, T. J., Pan, Y., and Martin, D. S. (1997) Early neuroradiologic evidence of degeneration in Menkes’ disease. Pediatr. Neurol. 17, 255–258.
Jankov, R. P., Boerkoel, C. F., Hellmann, J., Sirkin, W. L., Turner, Z., Horn, N., et al. (1998) Lethal neonatal Menkes’ disease with severe vasculopathy and fractures. Acta Paediatr. 87, 1297–1300.
Ubhi, T., Reece, A., and Craig, A. (2000) Congenital skull fracture as a presentation of Menkes disease. Dev. Med. Child. Neurol. 42, 347–348.
Das, S., Levinson, B., Whitney, S., Vulpe, C., Packman, S., and Gitschier J. (1994) Diverse mutations in patients with Menkes disease often lead to exon skipping. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 55, 883–889.
Wenk, G. and Suzuki, K. (1983) Congenital copper deficiency: copper therapy and dopamine-beta-hydroxylase activity in the mottled (brindled) mouse. J. Neurochem. 41, 1648–1652.
Meguro, Y., Kodama, H., Abe, T., Kobayashi, S., Kodama, Y., and Nishimura M. (1991) Changes of copper level and cytochrome c oxidase activity in the macular mouse with age. Brain Dev. 13, 184–186.
Yoshimura, N., Hatayama, I., Sato, K., and Nishimura, M. (1993) Complete recovery of cytochrome oxidase and superoxide dismutase activities in the brain of brindled mice receiving copper therapy. J. Intellect. Disabil. Res. 37, 561–569.
Peltonen, L., Kuivaniemi, H., Palotie, A., Horn, N., Kaitila, I., and Kivirikko, K. I. (1983) Alterations in copper and collagen metabolism in the Menkes syndrome and a new subtype of the Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. Biochemistry 22, 6156–6163.
Kemppainen,R., Hamalainen, E. R., Kuivaniemi, H., Tromp, G., Pihlajaniemi, T., and Kivirikko, K. I. (1996) Expression of mRNAs for lysyl oxidase and type III procollagen in cultured fibroblasts from patients with the Menkes and occipital horn syndromes as determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 328, 101–106.
Nooijen, J. L., De Groot. C. J., Van den Hamer, C. J., Monnens, L. A., Willemse, J., and Niermeijer, M.F. (1981) Trace element studies in three patients and a fetus with Menkes’ disease. Effect of copper therapy. Pediatr. Res. 15, 284–289.
Kodama, H., Abe, T., Takama, M., Takahashi, I., Kodama, M., and Nishimura, M. (1993) Histochemical localization of copper in the intestine and kidney of macular mice: light and electron microscopic study. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 41, 1529–1535.
Ozawa, H., Nakamoto, N., and Kodama, H. (2002) Clinical manifestations for early diagnosis of the patient with classical Menkes disease. No to Hatztatsu (in Japanese, Abstract English).
Oshio, T., Hino, M., Kirino, A., Matsumura, C., and Fukuda, K. (1997) Urologic abnormalities in Menkes’ kinky hair disease: report of three cases. J. Pediatr. Surg. 32, 782–784.
Gerdes, A. M., Tonnesen, T., Pergament, E., Sander, C., Baerlocher, K. E., Wartha, R., et al. (1988) Variability in clinical expression of Menkes syndrome. Eur. J. Pediatr. 148, 132–135.
Jayawant, S., Halpin, S., and Wallace, S. (2000) Menkes kinky hair disease: an unusual case. Eur. J. Pediatr. 4, 131–134.
Sugio, Y., Sugio, Y., Kuwano, A., Miyoshi, O., Yamada, K., Niikawa, N., et al. (1998) Translocation t(X;21)(q13.3; p 1.1) in a girl with Menkes disease. Am. J. Med. Genet. 79, 191–194.
Abusaad, I., Mohammed, S. N., Ogilvie, C. M., Ritchie, J., Pohl, K. R., and Docherty, Z. (1999) Clinical expression of Menkes disease in a girl with X;13 translocation. Am. J. Med. Genet. 87, 354–359.
Jacome, D. E. (1999) Epilepsy in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. Epilepsia 40, 467–473.
Higashi, A., Matsuda, I., Masumoto, T., Saikusa, H., Yabuso, M., and Oka, Y. (1985) Serum zinc and copper concentrations in low birth weight infants during first three months of life: correlation to birth weight and different feedings. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 146, 253–263.
Kaler, S. G., Goldstein, D. S., Holmes, C., Salerno, J. A., and Gahl, W. A. (1993) Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid neurochemical pattern in Menkes disease. Ann. Neurol. 33, 171–175.
Tsukahara, M., Imaizumi, K., Kawai, S. and Kajii, T. (1994) Occipital horn syndrome: report of a patient and review of the literature. Clin. Genet. 45, 32–35.
Herman, T. E., McAlister, W. H., Boniface, A., and Whyte, M. P. (1992) Occipital horn syndrome. Additional radiographic findings in two new cases. Pediatr. Radiol. 22, 363–365.
Kaler, S. G. (1994) Menkes disease. Adv. Pediatr. 41, 263–304.
Tonnesen, T., Gerdes, A. M., Damsgaard, E., Miny, P., Holzgreve, W., Sondergaard, F. et al. (1989) First-trimester diagnosis of Menkes disease: intermediate copper values in chorionic villi from three affected male fetuses. Prenat. Diagn. 9, 159–165.
Heydorn, K., Damsgaard, E., and Horn, N. (1999) Accumulated experience with prenatal diagnosis of Menkes disease by neutron activation analysis of chorionic villi specimens. Biol. Trace Element Res. 71-72, 551–561.
Sarkar, B. (1999) Treatment of Wilson and Menkes disease. Chem. Rev. 99, 2535–2544.
Christodoulou, J., Danks, D. M., Sarkar, B., Baerlocher, K. E., Casey, R., Horn, N., et al. (1998) Early treatment of Menkes disease with parenteral copper-histidine: long-term follow-up of four treated patients. Am. J. Med. Genet. 76, 154–164.
Kaler, S. G., Buist, N. R., Holmes, C. S., Goldstein, D. S., Miller, R. C., and Gahl, W. A. (1995) Early copper therapy in classic Menkes disease patients with a novel splicing mutation. Ann. Neurol. 38, 921–928.
Kodama, H., Meguro, Y., Abe, T., Rayner, M. H., Suzuki, K. T., Kobayashi, S., et al. (1991) Genetic expression of Menkes disease in cultured astrocytes of the macular mouse. J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 14, 896–901.
Kodama, H. (1993) Recent developments in Menkes disease. J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 16, 791–799.
Murata, Y., Kodama, H., Mori, Y., Kobayashi, M., and Abe, T. (1998) Mottled gene expression and copper distribution in the macular mouse, an animal model for Menkes disease. J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 21, 199–202.
Cunningham, S., Crofton, P. M., Marshall, T. G., and Fitzpatrick, D. R. (1999) A case of Menkes syndrome with pyloric stenosis: an effect of copper deficiency on NOS1 ? J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 22, 1978.
Kaler, S. G., Westman, J. A., Bernes, S. M., Elsayed, A. M., Bowe, C. M., Freeman, K. L., Wu, C. D., and Wallach, M. T. (1993) Gastrointestinal hemorrhage associated with gastric polyps in Menkes disease. J. Pediatr. 122, 93–95.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2002 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kodama, H. (2002). Molecular Genetics and Clinical Aspects of Menkes Disease and Occipital Horn Syndrome. In: Massaro, E.J. (eds) Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-288-3_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-288-3_18
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-1-61737-266-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-288-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive