Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia and can be thought of as a prototype of a primary neurodegenerative disorder (1,2). Studies of the epidemiology of AD have demonstrated an age-related increase in prevalence from approximately 10% in persons 65 yr old to as high as 50% in persons reaching 85 yr of age (3). In addition to age, family history, head trauma, general anesthesia, and a poor education have been implicated as risk factors for AD (4–6). The “graying” of our society as well as successes in developing treatments for other chronic disorders implies that unless ways are found to reduce the incidence of AD, the societal costs attributable to AD will increase in the coming years. The public health problem posed by AD is succintly illustrated by the fact that the current annual cost associated with AD in the United States is approximately US $100 billion. The projected quadupling of the affected population in the next 20–30 yr (7) serves to underscore the scope of the challenge.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Treves, T. A. (1991) Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 14, 251–265.
Fratiglioni, L. (1996) Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease and current possibilities for prevention. Acta Neurol. Scand. 165 (Suppl.), 33–40.
Fratiglioni, L., Forsell, Y., Aguero, T. H., and Winblad, B. (1994) Severity of dementia and institutionalization in the elderly, prevalence data from an urban area in Sweden. Neuroepidemiology 13, 79–88.
Bachman, D. L., Wolf, P. A., Linn, R., Knoefel, J. E., Cobb, J., Belanger, A., et al. (1992) Prevalence of dementia and probable senile dementia of the Alzheimer type in the Framingham Study. Neurology 42, 115–119.
Hendrie, H. C. (1997) Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease. Geriatrics 52 (Suppl. 2), S4 - S8
Slooter, A. J. and van Duijn, C. M. (1997) Genetic epidemiology of Alzheimer disease. Epidemiol. Rev. 19, 107–119.
Whitehouse, P. J. (1997) Pharmacoeconomics of dementia. Alzheimer Dis. Associat. Dis. 11 (Suppl 5), S22 - S32.
Brookmeye, R., Gray, S., and Kawas, C. (1998) Projections of Alzheimer’s disease in the United States and the public health impact of delaying disease onset. Am. J. Public Health 88, 1337–1342.
Morris, J. C. (1997) Alzheimer’s disease, a review of clinical assessment and management issues. Geriatrics 52 (Suppl. 2), S22 - S25
Hansen, L. A. (1997) The Lewy body variant of Alzheimer disease. J. Neural Transm. 51 (Suppl.), 83–93.
Johnson, J. K., Head, E., Kim, R., Starr, A., and Cotman, C. W. (1999) Clinical and pathological evidence for a frontal variant of Alzheimer disease. Arch. Neurol. 56, 1233–1239.
Brooks, J. O. and Yesavage, J. A. Identification of fast and slow decliners in Alzheimer disease, a different approach. Alzheimer Dis. Associat. Dis. 9(Suppl. 1), S 19-S25
Piccini, C., Bracco, L., Falcini, M., Pracucci, G., and Amaducci, L. (1995) Natural history of Alzheimer’s disease, prognostic value of plateaux. J. Neurol. Sci. 131, 177–182.
Rasmusson, D. X., Brandt, J., Steele, C., Hedreen, J. C., Troncoso, J. C., and Folstein, M. F. (1996) Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer disease and clinical features of patients with non-Alzheimer disease neuropathology. Alzheimer Dis. Associat. Disord. 10, 180–188.
McKhann, G., Drachman, D., Folstein, M., Katzman, R., Price, D., and Stadlan, E. M. (1984) Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer’ s Disease. Neurology 34, 939–944.
Galasko, D., Hansen, L. A., Katzman, R., Wiederholt, W., Masliah, E., Terry, R., et al. (1994) Clinical-neuropathological correlations in Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. Arch. Neurol. 51, 888–895.
Filley, C. M., Chapman, M. M., and Dubovsky, S. L. (1996) Ethical concerns in the use of palliative drug treatment for Alzheimer’s Disease. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 8, 202–205.
McLendon, B. M. and Doraiswamy, P. M. (1999) Defining meaningful change in Alzheimer’s disease trials, the donepezil experience. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol. 12, 39–48.
Domingo, J. L. (1995) Adverse effects of potential agents for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, a review. Adverse Drug Reacti. Toxicol. Rev. 14, 101–115.
Fenn, P. and Gray, A. (1999) Estimating long-term cost savings from treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. A modelling approach. Pharmacoeconomics 16, 165–174.
Neumann, P. J., Hermann, R. C., Kuntz, K. M., Araki, S. S., Duff, S. B., Leon, J., et al. (1999) Cost-effectiveness of donepezil in the treatment of mild or moderate Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 52, 1138–1145.
Hardy, J. (1997) Amyloid, the presenilins and Alzheimer’s disease. Trends Neurosci. 20, 154–159.
The National Institute on Aging, and Reagan Institute Working Group on Diagnostic Criteria for the Neuropathological Assessment of Alzheimer’s Disease. (1997) Consensus recommendations for the postmortem diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 18, S1 - S2
Small, D. H. (1998) The role of the amyloid protein precursor (APP) in Alzheimer’s disease, does the normal function of APP explain the topography of neurodegeneration? Neurochem. Res. 23, 795–806.
Selkoe, D. J. (1999) Translating cell biology into therapeutic advances in Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 399, A23 - A31
Tilley, L., Morgan, K., and Kalsheker, N. (1998) Genetic risk factors in Alzheimer’s disease. Mol. Pathol. 51, 293–304.
Aisen, P. S. (1997) Inflammation and Alzheimer’s disease, mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Gerontology 43, 143–149.
Frolich, L. and Riederer, P. (1995) Free radical mechanisms in dementia of Alzheimer type and the potential for antioxidative treatment. Arzneimittel-Forschung 45, 443–446.
Alvarez, A., Toro, R., Caceres, A., and Maccioni, R. B. (1999) Inhibition of tau phosphorylating protein kinase cdk5 prevents beta-amyloid-induced neuronal death. FEBS Lett. 459, 21–426.
Ehrenstein, G., Galdzicki, Z., and Lange, G. D. (1997) The choline-leakage hypothesis for the loss of acetylcholine in Alzheimer’s disease. Biophys. J. 73, 1276–1280.
Kaltschmidt, B., Uherek, M., Wellmann, H., Volk, B., and Kaltschmidt, C. (1999) Inhibition of NF-kappaB potentiates amyloid beta-mediated neuronal apoptosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96, 9409–9414.
Hussain, I., Powell, D., Howlett, D. R., Tew, D. G., Meek, T. D., Chapman, C., et al. (1999) Identification of a novel aspartic protease (Asp 2) as betasecretase. Mol. Cell Neurosci. 14, 419–427.
Sinha, S., Anderson, J. P., Barbour, R., Basi, G. S., Caccavello, R., Davis, D., et al. (1999) Purification and cloning of amyloid precursor protein betasecretase from human brain. Nature 402, 537–540.
Vassar, R., Bennett, B. D., Babu-Khan, S., Kahn, S., Mendiaz, E. A., Denis, P., et al. (1999) Beta-secretase cleavage of Alzheimer’s amyloid precursor protein by the transmembrane aspartic protease BACE. Science 286, 735–741.
Yan, R., Bienkowski, M. J., Shuck, M. E., Miao, H., Tory, M. C., Pauley, A. M., et al. (1999) Membrane-anchored aspartyl protease with Alzheimer’s disease beta-secretase activity. Nature 402, 533–537.
Schenk, D., Barbour, R., Dunn, W., Gordon, G., Grajeda, H., Guido, T., et al. (1999) Immunization with amyloid-beta attenuates Alzheimer-disease-like pathology in the PDAPP mouse. Nature 400, 173–177.
Durkin, J. T., Murthy, S., Husten, E. J., Trusko, S. P., Savage, M. J., Rotella, D. P., et al. Rank-order of potencies for inhibition of the secretion of abeta40 and abeta42 suggests that both are generated by a single gamma-secretase. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 20499–20504.
Janciauskiene, S., Garcia, D. F., Carlemalm, E., Dahlback, B., and Eriksson, S. (1995) Inhibition of Alzheimer beta-peptide fibril formation by serum amyloid P component. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 26041–26044.
Soto, C. (1999) Plaque busters, strategies to inhibit amyloid formation in Alzheimer’s disease. Mol. Med. Today 5, 343–350.
Zhang, W., Johnson, B. R., and Bjornsson, T. D. (1997) Pharmacologic inhibition of transglutaminase-induced cross—linking of Alzheimer’ s amyloid beta-peptide. Life Sci. 60, 2323–2332.
Howlett, D. R., Perry, A. E., Godfrey, F., Swatton, J. E., Jennings, K. H., Spitzfaden, C., et al. (1999) Inhibition of fibril formation in beta-amyloid peptide by a novel series of benzofurans. Biochem. J. 340, 283–289.
Racchi, M., Solano, D. C., Sironi, M., and Govoni, S. (1999) Activity of alpha-secretase as the common final effector of protein kinase C-dependent and -independent modulation of amyloid precursor protein metabolism. J. Neurochem. 72, 2464–2470.
Kuda, T., Shoji, M., Arai, H., Kawashima, S., and Saido, T. C. (1997) Reduction of plasma glutamyl aminopeptidase activity in sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 231, 526–530.
Price, D. L., Becher, M. W., Wong, P. C., Borchelt, D. R., Lee, M. K., and Sisodia, S. S. (1996) Inherited neurodegenerative diseases and transgenic models. Brain Pathol. 6, 467–480.
Saito, Y., Buciak, J., Yang, J., and Pardridge, W. M. (1995) Vector-mediated delivery of 125I-labeled beta—amyloid peptide A beta 1–40 through the blood-brain barrier and binding to Alzheimer disease amyloid of the A beta 1–40/vector complex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 10227–10231.
Holcomb, L., Gordon, M. N., McGowan, E., Yu, X., Benkovic, S., Jantzen, P., et al. (1998) Accelerated Alzheimer-type phenotype in transgenic mice carrying both mutant amyloid precursor protein and presenilin 1 transgenes. Nature Med. 4, 97–100.
Hyman, B. T., Marzloff, K., and Arriagada, P. V. (1993) The lack of accumulation of senile plaques or amyloid burden in Alzheimer’s disease suggests a dynamic balance between amyloid deposition and resolution. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 52, 594–600.
Finch, C. E. and Sapolsky, R. M. (1999) The evolution of Alzheimer disease, the reproductive schedule, and apoE isoforms. Neurobiol. Aging 20, 407–428.
Dickson, D. W. (1997) Neuropathological diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease, a perspective from longitudinal clinicopathological studies. Neurobiol. Aging 18, S21 - S26
Moir, R. D., Lynch, T., Bush, A. I., Whyte, S., Henry, A., Portbury, S., et al. (1998) Relative increase in Alzheimer’ s disease of soluble forms of cerebral Abeta amyloid protein precursor containing the Kunitz protease inhibitory domain. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 5013–5019.
The Ronald and Nancy Reagan Research Institute of the Alzheimer’s Association and the National Institute on Aging Working Group. Consensus report of the Working Group on “Molecular and Biochemical Markers of Alzheimer’s Disease.” (1998) Neurobiol. Aging 19, 109–116.
Sano, M., Ernesto, C., Thomas, R. G., Klauber, M. R., Schafer, K., Grundman, M., et al. (1997) A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. The Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study. N. Engl. J. Med. 336, 1216–1222.
Rother, M., Erkinjuntti, T., Roessner, M., Kittner, B., Marcusson, J., and Karlsson, I. (1998) Propentofylline in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia, a review of phase III trials. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 9 (Suppl. 1), 36–43.
Zhong, B., Lu, X., and Silverman, R. B. (1998) Syntheses of amino nitrones. Potential intramolecular traps for radical intermediates in monoamine oxidate-catalyzed reactions. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 6, 2405–2419.
Gutzmann, H. and Hadler, D. (1998) Sustained efficacy and safety of idebenone in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, update on a 2-year double-blind multicentre study. J. Neural Transm. 54 (Suppl.), 301–310.
Cesura, A. M., Borroni, E., Gottowik, J., Kuhn, C., Malherbe, P., Martin, J., et al. (1999) Lazabemide for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, rationale and therapeutic perspectives. Adv. Neurol. 80, 521–528.
Finberg, J. P., Lamensdorf, I., Commissiong, J. W., and Youdim, M. B. (1996) Pharmacology and neuroprotective properties of rasagiline. J. Neural. Transm. 48 (Suppl.), 95–101.
McGeer, P. L. and McGeer, E. G. (1999) Inflammation of the brain in Alzheimer’s disease, implications for therapy. J. Leukocyte Biol. 65, 409–415.
Breitner, J. C. (1996) The role of anti-inflammatory drugs in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Annu. Rev. Med. 47, 401–411.
Scharf, S., Mander, A., Ugoni, A., Vajda, F., and Christophidis, N. (1999) A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of diclofenac/misoprostol in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 53, 197–201.
Aisen, P. S., Marin, D., Altstiel, L., Goodwin, C., Baruch, B., Jacobson, R., et al. (1996) A pilot study of prednisone in Alzheimer’s disease. Dementia 7, 201–206.
Tan, J., Town, T., Paris, D., Mori, T., Suo, Z., Crawford, F., et al. (1998) Micro-glial Activation resulting from CD4O-CD4OL interaction after beta-amyloid stimulation. Science 286, 2352–2355.
Mohr, E., Nair, N. P., Sampson, M., Murtha, S., Belanger, G., Pappas, B., et al. (1997) Treatment of Alzheimer’s disease with sabeluzole, functional and structural correlates. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 20, 338–345.
Hoshi, M., Takashima, A., Noguchi, K., Murayama, M., Sato, M., Kondo, S., et al. (1996) Regulation of mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase activity by tau protein kinase I/glycogen synthase kinase 3beta in brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 2719–2723.
Michel, P., Lambeng, N., and Ruberg, M. (1999) Neuropharmacologic Aspects of Apoptosis, Significance for Neurodegenerative Diseases. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 22, 137–150.
Hefti, F. (1997) Pharmacology of neurotrophic factors. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 37, 239–267.
Grundman, M., Corey-Bloom, J., and Thal, L. J. (1998) Perspectives in clinical Alzheimer’s disease research and the development of antidementia drugs. J. Neural Transm. 53 (Suppl.), 255–275.
Krall, W. J., Sramek, J. J., and Cutler, N. R. (1999) Cholinesterase inhibitors: a therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer disease. Ann. Pharmacother. 33, 441–450.
Avery, E. E., Baker, L. D., and Asthana, S. (1997) Potential role of muscarinic agonists in Alzheimer’s disease. Drugs Aging 11, 450–459.
Sedman, A. J., Bockbrader, H., and Schwarz, R. D. (1995) Preclinical and phase 1 clinical characterization of CI-979/RÚ35926, a novel muscarinic agonist for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Life Sci. 56, 877–882.
Bodick, N. C., Offen, W. W., Levey, A. I., Cutler, N. R., Gauthier, S. G., Satlin, A., et al. (1997) Effects of xanomeline, a selective muscarinic receptor agonist, on cognitive function and behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer disease. Arch. Neurol. 54, 465–473.
Fisher, A., Heldman, E., Gurwitz, D., Haring, R., Karton, Y., Meshulam, H., et al. (1996) M1 agonists for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Novel properties and clinical update. Ann. NYAcad. Sci. 777, 189–196.
Lachowicz, J. E., Lowe, D., Duffy, R. A., Ruperto, V., Taylor, L. A., Guzik, H., et al. (1999) SCH 57790: a novel M2 receptor selective antagonist. Life Sci. 64, 535–539.
Muller, D., Wiegmann, H., Langer, U., Moltzen-Lenz, S., and Nitsch, R. M. Lu (1998) 25–109, a combined ml agonist and m2 antagonist, modulates regulated processing of the amyloid precursor protein of Alzheimer’s disease. J. Neural. Transm. 105, 1029–1043.
Potter, A., Corwin, J., Lang, J., Piasecki, M., Lenox, R., and Newhouse, P. A. (1999) Acute effects of the selective cholinergic channel activator (nicotinic agonist) ABT-418 in Alzheimer’s disease. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 142, 334–342.
Vernier, J. M., El-Abdellaoui, H., Holsenback, H., Cosford, N. D., Bleicher, L., Barker, G., et al. (1999) 4-[[2-(1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinyl)ethyl]thio]phenol hydrochloride (SIB-1553A), a novel cognitive enhancer with selectivity for neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. J. Med. Chem. 42, 1684–1686.
Arendash, G. W., Sengstock, G. J., Sanberg, P. R., and Kem, W. R. (1995) Improved learning and memory in aged rats with chronic administration of the nicotinic receptor agonist GTS-21. Brain Res. 674, 252–259.
Murai, S., Saito, H., Abe, E., Masuda, Y., Odashima, J., and Itoh, T. (1994) MKC-231, a choline uptake enhancer, ameliorates working memory deficits and decreased hippocampal acetylcholine induced by ethylcholine aziridinium ion in mice.. J. Neural. Transm. Gen. Sect. 98, 1–13.
Mellow, A. M., Aronson, S. M., Giordani, B., and Berent, S. (1993) A peptide enhancement strategy in Alzheimer’s disease, pilot study with TRH—physostigmine infusions. Biol. Psychiatry 34, 271–273.
Horita, A., Carino, M. A., Zabawska, J., and Lai, H. (1989) TRH analog MK-771 reverses neurochemical and learning deficits in medial septallesioned rats. Peptides 10, 121–124.
Behan, D. P., Heim-ichs, S. C., Troncoso, J. C., Liu, X. J., Kawas, C. H., Ling, N., et al. (1995) Displacement of corticotropin releasing factor from its binding protein as a possible treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 378, 284–287.
Toide, K., Shinoda, M., and Miyazaki, A. (1998) A novel prolyl endopeptidase inhibitor, JTP-4819—its behavioral and neurochemical properties for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 17–29.
Hampson, R. E., Rogers, G., Lynch, G., and Deadwyler, S. A. (1998) Facilitative effects of the ampakine CX516 on short-term memory in rats: enhancement of delayed-nonmatch-to-sample performance. J. Neurosci. 18, 2740–2747.
Fakouhi, T. D., Jhee, S. S., Sramek, J. J., Benes, C., Schwartz, P., Hantsburger, G., et al. (1995) Evaluation of cycloserine in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol. 8, 226–230.
Craft, S. (1999) Enhancement of memory in Alzheimer disease with insulin and somatostatin, but not glucose. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 56, 1135–1140.
Abe, K., Takeyama, C., and Yoshimura, K. (1998) Effects of S-8510, a novel benzodiazepine receptor partial inverse agonist, on basal forebrain lesioninginduced dysfunction in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 347, 145–152.
Ott, B. R., Thompson, J. A., and Whelihan, W. M. (1996) Cognitive effects of flumazenil in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 16, 400–402.
van Duijn, C. M. (1999) Hormone replacement therapy and Alzheimer’s disease. Maturitas 31, 201–205.
Treves, T. A. and Korczyn, A. D. (1999) Denbufylline in dementia, A double-blind controlled study. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 10, 505–510.
Parnetti, L., Ambrosoli, L., Abate, G., Azzini, C., Balestreri, R., Bartorelli, L., et al. (1995) Posatirelin for the treatment of late-onset Alzheimer’s disease, a double–blind multicentre study vs citicoline and ascorbic acid. Acta Neurolog. Scand. 92, 135–140.
Markesbery, W. R. (1997) Oxidative stress hypothesis in Alzheimer’s disease. Free Radical Biol. Med. 23, 134–147.
Mimori, Y., Katsuoka, H., and Nakamura, S. (1996) Thiamine therapy in Alzheimer’s disease. Metab. Brain Dis. 11, 89–94.
Thal, L. J., Carta, A., Clarke, W. R., Ferris, S. H., Friedland, R. P., Petersen, R. C., et al. A 1-year multicenter placebo-controlled study of acetyl-L-carnitine in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 47, 705–711.
Fleischhacker, W. W., Buchgeher, A., and Schubert, H. (1986) Memantine in the treatment of senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Pro g. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 10, 87–93.
Goedert, M. (1996) Tau protein and the neurofibrillary pathology of Alzheimer’s disease. Ann. NYAcad. Sci. 777, 121–131.
Sperfeld, A. D., Collatz, M. B., Baier, H., Palmbach, M., Storch, A., Schwarz, J., et al. (1999) FTDP-17, an early-onset phenotype with parkinsonism and epileptic seizures caused by a novel mutation. Ann. Neurol. 46, 708–715.
Imahori, K., Hoshi, M., Ishiguro, K., Sato, K., Takahashi, M., Shiurba, R., et al. (1998) Possible role of tau protein kinases in pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 19, S93–S98
Trojanowski, J. Q. and Lee, V. M. (1995) Phosphorylation of paired helical filament tau in Alzheimer’s disease neurofibrillary lesions, focusing on phosphatases. FASEB J. 9, 1570–1576.
Snowdon, D. A., Greiner, L. H., Mortimer, J. A., Riley, K. P., Greiner, P. A., and Markesbery, W. R. (1997) Brain infarction and the clinical expression of Alzheimer disease. The Nun Study. JAMA 277, 813–817.
Sparks, D. L. (1997) Coronary artery disease, hypertension, ApoE, and cholesterol, a link to Alzheimer’s disease? Ann. NYAcad. Sci. 826, 128–146.
Forette, F., Seux, M. L., Staessen, J. A., Thijs, L., Birkenhager, W. H., Babarskiene, M. R., et al. (1998) Prevention of dementia in randomised double-blind placebo-controlled Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) trial. Lancet 352, 1347–1351.
Tedesco, M. A., Ratti, G., Mennella, S., Manzo, G., Grieco, M., Rainone, A. C., et al. (1999) Comparison of losartan and hydrochlorothiazide on cognitive function and quality of life in hypertensive patients. Am. J. Hypertens. 12, 1130–1134.
Alexander, G. E., Furey, M. L., Grady, C. L., Pietrini, P., Brady, D. R., Mentis, M. J., et al. (1997) Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer’s disease, implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Am. J. Psychiatry 154, 165–172.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2001 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gold, M., Felsenstein, K.M., Molinoff, P. (2001). Treatment Approaches for Alzheimer’s Disease. In: Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegenerative Diseases. Contemporary Clinical Neuroscience. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-006-3_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-006-3_6
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-1-61737-197-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-006-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive