Abstract
Immature cervical vertebrae and their surrounding joints provide little in the way of bony support in the neck of a child; thus, the integrity of the pediatric cervical spine relies heavily on the soft tissues that surround it. This chapter discusses conditions that are associated with cervical spine pathology due to weak connective tissues, including syndromes of Marfan, Loeys-Dietz, Ehlers-Danlos, and Down. Later we touch on bone dysplasias, inflammatory conditions and infections.
References
Pyeritz RE, McKusick VA. The Marfan syndrome: diagnosis and management. N Engl J Med. 1979;300(14):772–7.
Parrish JG. Heritable disorders of connective tissue. Proc R Soc Med. 1960;53:515.
Dietz HC, Cutting GR, Pyeritz RE, Maslen CL, Sakai LY, Corson GM, et al. Marfan syndrome caused by a recurrent de novo missense mutation in the fibrillin gene. Nature. 1991;352(6333):337–9.
Dietz HC, Pyeritz RE. Mutations in the human gene for fibrillin-1 (FBN1) in the Marfan syndrome and related disorders. Hum Mol Genet. 1995;4 Spec No:1799–809.
Eldadah ZA, Grifo JA, Dietz HC. Marfan syndrome as a paradigm for transcript-targeted preimplantation diagnosis of heterozygous mutations. Nat Med. 1995;1(8):798–803.
McKusick VA. Heritable disorders of connective tissue. 4th ed. St. Louis: CV Mosby; 1972.
Pereira L, Andrikopoulos K, Tian J, Lee SY, Keene DR, Ono R, et al. Targetting of the gene encoding fibrillin-1 recapitulates the vascular aspect of Marfan syndrome. Nat Genet. 1997;17(2):218–22.
Neptune ER, Frischmeyer PA, Arking DE, Myers L, Bunton TE, Gayraud B, et al. Dysregulation of TGF-beta activation contributes to pathogenesis in Marfan syndrome. Nat Genet. 2003;33(3):407–11.
Robins PR, Moe JH, Winter RB. Scoliosis in Marfan’s syndrome. Its characteristics and results of treatment in thirty-five patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1975;57(3):358–68.
Sponseller PD, Hobbs W, Riley LH 3rd, Pyeritz RE. The thoracolumbar spine in Marfan syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(6):867–76.
Yetman AT, Bornemeier RA, McCrindle BW. Long-term outcome in patients with Marfan syndrome: is aortic dissection the only cause of sudden death? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41(2):329–32.
Keech MK, Wendt VE, Read RC, Bistue AR, Bianchi FA. Family studies of the Marfan syndrome. J Chronic Dis. 1966;19(1):57–83.
Steinberg I. A simple screening test for the Marfan syndrome. Am J Roentgenol Radium Therapy, Nucl Med. 1966;97(1):118–24.
Rose PS, Levy HP, Ahn NU, Sponseller PD, Magyari T, Davis J, et al. A comparison of the Berlin and Ghent nosologies and the influence of dural ectasia in the diagnosis of Marfan syndrome. Genet Med. 2000;2(5):278–82.
Jones KB, Erkula G, Sponseller PD, Dormans JP. Spine deformity correction in Marfan syndrome. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2002;27(18):2003–12.
Place HM, Enzenauer RJ. Cervical spine subluxation in Marfan syndrome. A case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006;88(11):2479–82.
Dickman CA, Kalani MY. Resolution of cervical syringomyelia after transoral odontoidectomy and occipitocervical fusion in a patient with basilar invagination and Type I Chiari malformation. J Clin Neurosci. 2012;19(12):1726–8.
Hobbs WR, Sponseller PD, Weiss AP, Pyeritz RE. The cervical spine in Marfan syndrome. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1997;22(9):983–9.
Herzka A, Sponseller PD, Pyeritz RE. Atlantoaxial rotatory subluxation in patients with Marfan syndrome. A report of three cases. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000;25(4):524–6.
Yang JS, Sponseller PD. Severe cervical kyphosis complicating halo traction in a patient with Marfan syndrome. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(1):E66–9.
MacKenzie JM, Rankin R. Sudden death due to atlantoaxial subluxation in Marfan syndrome. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2003;24(4):369–70.
Campbell RM Jr. Spine deformities in rare congenital syndromes: clinical issues. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(17):1815–27.
Loeys BL, Chen J, Neptune ER, Judge DP, Podowski M, Holm T, et al. A syndrome of altered cardiovascular, craniofacial, neurocognitive and skeletal development caused by mutations in TGFBR1 or TGFBR2. Nat Genet. 2005;37(3):275–81.
Arslan-Kirchner M, Epplen JT, Faivre L, Jondeau G, Schmidtke J, De Paepe A, et al. Clinical utility gene card for: Loeys-Dietz syndrome (TGFBR1/2) and related phenotypes. Eur J Hum Genet. 2011;19(10).
Loeys BL, Schwarze U, Holm T, Callewaert BL, Thomas GH, Pannu H, et al. Aneurysm syndromes caused by mutations in the TGF-beta receptor. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(8):788–98.
Attias D, Stheneur C, Roy C, Collod-Béroud G, Detaint D, Faivre L, et al. Comparison of clinical presentations and outcomes between patients with TGFBR2 and FBN1 mutations in Marfan syndrome and related disorders. Circulation. 2009;120(25):2541–9.
Hughes BD, Powers CJ, Zomorodi AR. Clipping of a cerebral aneurysm in a patient with Loeys-Dietz syndrome: case report. Neurosurgery. 2011;69(3):E746–55; discussion E55.
Gath A. Parental reactions to loss and disappointment: the diagnosis of Down’s syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1985;27(3):392–400.
Caird MS, Wills BP, Dormans JP. Down syndrome in children: the role of the orthopaedic surgeon. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2006;14(11):610–9.
Pizzutillo PD, Herman MJ. Cervical spine issues in Down syndrome. J Pediatr Orthop. 2005;25(2):253–9.
Browd SR, McIntyre JS, Brockmeyer D. Failed age-dependent maturation of the occipital condyle in patients with congenital occipitoatlantal instability and Down syndrome: a preliminary analysis. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2008;2(5):359–64.
Matsunaga S, Imakiire T, Koga H, Ishidou Y, Sasaki H, Taketomi E, et al. Occult spinal canal stenosis due to C-1 hypoplasia in children with Down syndrome. J Neurosurg. 2007;107(6 Suppl):457–9.
Al-Habib A, AlAqeel A. C2/3 instability: unusual cause of cervical myelopathy in a child with Down syndrome. Childs Nerv Syst. 2013;29(1):163–5.
Tassone JC, Duey-Holtz A. Spine concerns in the Special Olympian with Down syndrome. Sports Med Arthrosc Rev. 2008;16(1):55–60.
Hedequist D, Bekelis K, Emans J, Proctor MR. Single stage reduction and stabilization of basilar invagination after failed prior fusion surgery in children with Down’s syndrome. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2010;35(4):E128–33.
Hopwood JJ, Morris CP. The mucopolysaccharidoses. Diagnosis, molecular genetics and treatment. Mol Biol Med. 1990;7(5):381–404.
Leroux S, Muller JB, Boutaric E, Busnel A, Lemouel F, Andro-Garçon M, et al. Hurler syndrome: early diagnosis and treatment. Arch Pediatr. 2014;21(5):501–506. French.
Jin WD, Jackson CE, Desnick RJ, Schuchman EH. Mucopolysaccharidosis type VI: identification of three mutations in the arylsulfatase B gene of patients with the severe and mild phenotypes provides molecular evidence for genetic heterogeneity. Am J Hum Genet. 1992;50(4):795–800.
Scriver CR, Sly WS. The metabolic and molecular basis of inherited disease. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2008.
Haddad FS, Jones DH, Vellodi A, Kane N, Pitt MC. Carpal tunnel syndrome in the mucopolysaccharidoses and mucolipidoses. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1997;79(4):576–82.
Odunusi E, Peters C, Krivit W, Ogilvie J. Genu valgum deformity in Hurler syndrome after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: correction by surgical intervention. J Pediatr Orthop. 1999;19(2):270–4.
Kopits SE. Orthopedic complications of dwarfism. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1976;114:153–79.
White KK, Karol LA, White DR, Hale S. Musculoskeletal manifestations of Sanfilippo syndrome (mucopolysaccharidosis type III). J Pediatr Orthop. 2011;31(5):594–8.
Thorne JA, Javadpour M, Hughes DG, Wraith E, Cowie RA. Craniovertebral abnormalities in Type VI mucopolysaccharidosis (Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome). Neurosurgery. 2001;48(4):849–52; discussion 852–3.
Beck M, Arn P, Giugliani R, Muenzer J, Okuyama T, Taylor J, et al. The natural history of MPS I: global perspectives from the MPS I Registry. Genet Med. 2014;16(10):759–65.
White KK, Sousa T. Mucopolysaccharide disorders in orthopaedic surgery. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2013;21(1):12–22.
Houten JK, Kinon MG, Goodrich JT. Morquio’s syndrome and craniocervical instability. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2011;47(3):238–40.
Solanki GA, et al. Spinal involvement in mucopolysaccharidosis IVA (Morquio-Brailsford or Morquio A syndrome): presentation, diagnosis and management. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2013;36(2):339–55.
White KK, Steinman S, Mubarak SJ. Cervical stenosis and spastic quadriparesis in Morquio disease (MPS IV). A case report with twenty-six-year follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2009;91(2):438–42.
Solanki GA, Alden TD, Burton BK, Giugliani R, Horovitz DD, Jones SA, et al. A multinational, multidisciplinary consensus for the diagnosis and management of spinal cord compression among patients with mucopolysaccharidosis VI. Mol Genet Metab. 2012;107(1–2):15–24.
Souillet G, Guffon N, Maire I, Pujol M, Taylor P, Sevin F, et al. Outcome of 27 patients with Hurler’s syndrome transplanted from either related or unrelated haematopoietic stem cell sources. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2003;31(12):1105–17.
Noh H, Lee JI. Current and potential therapeutic strategies for mucopolysaccharidoses. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2014;39(3):215–24.
Illsinger S, et al. Scheie syndrome: enzyme replacement therapy does not prevent progression of cervical myelopathy due to spinal cord compression. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2009;32(Suppl 1):S321–5.
Kirkpatrick K, Ellwood J, Walker RW. Mucopolysaccharidosis type I (Hurler syndrome) and anesthesia: the impact of bone marrow transplantation, enzyme replacement therapy, and fiberoptic intubation on airway management. Paediatr Anaesth. 2012;22(8):745–51.
Vougioukas VI, Berlis A, Kopp MV, Korinthenberg R, Spreer J, van Velthoven V. Neurosurgical interventions in children with Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome. Case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2001;35(1):35–8.
Khan SA, Sehat K, Calthorpe D. Cervical cord compression in an elderly patient with Hurler’s syndrome: a case report. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2003;28(16):E313–5.
Baratela WA, Bober MB, Thacker MM, Belthur MV, Oto M, Rogers KJ, et al. Cervicothoracic myelopathy in children with Morquio syndrome a: a report of 4 cases. J Pediatr Orthop. 2014;34(2):223–8.
Dede O, Thacker MM, Rogers KJ, Oto M, Belthur MV, Baratela W, et al. Upper cervical fusion in children with Morquio syndrome: intermediate to long-term results. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95(13):1228–34.
Dickerman RD, Colle KO, Bruno CA Jr, Schneider SJ. Craniovertebral instability with spinal cord compression in a 17-month-old boy with Sly syndrome (mucopolysaccharidosis type VII): a surgical dilemma. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(5):E92–4.
Riccardi VM. Neurofibromatosis: past, present, and future. N Engl J Med. 1991;324(18):1283–5.
Cooper J, Giancotti FG. Molecular insights into NF2/Merlin tumor suppressor function. FEBS Lett. 2014;588(16):2743–52.
Alman AB, Goldberg MJ. Syndromes of orthopaedic importance. In: Morrissy WS, editor. Lovell and Winter’s pediatric orthopaedics. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006. p. 261–7.
Akbarnia BA, Gabriel KR, Beckman E, Chalk D. Prevalence of scoliosis in neurofibromatosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1992;17(8 Suppl):S244–8.
Wu F, Zhang L, Liu Z, Sun Y, Li F, Wang S, Wei F. Cervical neurofibromatosis with tetraplegia: management by cervical suspensory traction. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(14):E858–62.
Vitale MG, Guha A, Skaggs DL. Orthopaedic manifestations of neurofibromatosis in children: an update. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2002;401:107–18.
Plotkin SR, O’Donnell CC, Curry WT, Bove CM, MacCollin M, Nunes FP. Spinal ependymomas in neurofibromatosis Type 2: a retrospective analysis of 55 patients. J Neurosurg Spine. 2011;14(4):543–7.
Taleb FS, Guha A, Arnold PM, Fehlings MG, Massicotte EM. Surgical management of cervical spine manifestations of neurofibromatosis Type 1: long-term clinical and radiological follow-up in 22 cases. J Neurosurg Spine 2011;14(3):356–366.
Miyakoshi N, Hongo M, Kasukawa Y, Misawa A, Shimada Y. Bilateral and symmetric C1-C2 dumbbell ganglioneuromas associated with neurofibromatosis type 1 causing severe spinal cord compression. Spine J. 2010;10(4):e11–5.
Garg S, Hosalkar H, Dormans JP. Quadriplegia in a 10-year-old boy due to multiple cervical neurofibromas. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2003;28(17):E339–43.
Ma J, Wu Z, Yang X, Xiao J. Surgical treatment of severe cervical dystrophic kyphosis due to neurofibromatosis Type 1: a review of 8 cases. J Neurosurg Spine 2011;14(1):93–98.
Yoshihara H, Abumi K, Ito M, Kotani Y, Sudo H, Takahata M. Severe fixed cervical kyphosis treated with circumferential osteotomy and pedicle screw fixation using an anterior-posterior-anterior surgical sequence. World Neurosurg. 2013;80(5):654.e17–21.
Kawabata S, Watanabe K, Hosogane N, Ishii K, Nakamura M, Toyama Y, et al. Surgical correction of severe cervical kyphosis in patients with neurofibromatosis Type 1. J Neurosurg Spine. 2013;18(3):274–9.
Inoue M, Sairyo K, Sakai T, Yasui N. Significance of surgical treatment for severe dystrophic changes in the cervical spine associated with neurofibromatosis type I: a case report. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2010;19(3):270–5.
Warman ML, Cormier-Daire V, Hall C, Krakow D, Lachman R, LeMerrer M, et al. Nosology and classification of genetic skeletal disorders: 2010 revision. Am J Med Genet A. 2011;155A(5):943–68.
Shiang R, Thompson LM, Zhu YZ, Church DM, Fielder TJ, Bocian M, et al. Mutations in the transmembrane domain of FGFR3 cause the most common genetic form of dwarfism, achondroplasia. Cell. 1994;78(2):335–42.
Ippolito E, Maynard JA, Mickelson MR, Ponseti IV. Histochemical and ultrastructural study of the growth plate in achondroplasia. Basic Life Sci. 1988;48:61–71.
Wynne-Davies R, Walsh WK, Gormley J. Achondroplasia and hypochondroplasia. Clinical variation and spinal stenosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1981;63B(4):508–15.
Harrod MJ, Friedman JM, Currarino G, Pauli RM, Langer LO Jr. Genetic heterogeneity in spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita. Am J Med Genet. 1984;18(2):311–20.
LeDoux MS, Naftalis RC, Aronin PA. Stabilization of the cervical spine in spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita. Neurosurgery. 1991;28(4):580–3.
Al Kaissi A, Chehida FB, Ghachem MB, Klaushofer K, Grill F. A hypoplastic atlas and long odontoid process in a girl manifesting phenotypic features resembling spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia joint laxity syndrome. Skelet Radiol. 2008;37(5):469–73.
Simon M, Campos-Xavier AB, Mittaz-Crettol L, Valadares ER, Carvalho D, Speck-Martins CE, et al. Severe neurologic manifestations from cervical spine instability in spondylo-megaepiphyseal-metaphyseal dysplasia. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2012;160C(3):230–7.
Hastbacka J, Sistonen P, Kaitila I, Weiffenbach B, Kidd KK, de la Chapelle A. A linkage map spanning the locus for diastrophic dysplasia (DTD). Genomics. 1991;11(4):968–73.
Hastbacka J, de la Chapelle A, Mahtani MM, Clines G, Reeve-Daly MP, Daly M, et al. The diastrophic dysplasia gene encodes a novel sulfate transporter: positional cloning by fine-structure linkage disequilibrium mapping. Cell. 1994;78(6):1073–87.
Remes VM, Marttinen EJ, Poussa MS, Helenius IJ, Peltonen JI. Cervical spine in patients with diastrophic dysplasia–radiographic findings in 122 patients. Pediatr Radiol. 2002;32(9):621–8.
Winer N, Kyndt F, Paumier A, David A, Isidor B, Quentin M, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of Larsen syndrome caused by a mutation in the filamin B gene. Prenat Diagn. 2009;29(2):172–4.
Roopesh Kumar VR, Madhguiri VS, Sasidharan GM, Gundamaneni SK, Yadav AK. Larsen syndrome with C3-C4 spondyloptosis and atlantoaxial dislocation in an adult. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013;38(1):E43–7.
Deere M, Sanford T, Francomano CA, Daniels K, Hecht JT. Identification of nine novel mutations in cartilage oligomeric matrix protein in patients with pseudoachondroplasia and multiple epiphyseal dysplasia. Am J Med Genet. 1999;85(5):486–90.
Shetty GM, Song HR, Unnikrishnan R, Suh SW, Lee SH, Hur CY. Upper cervical spine instability in pseudoachondroplasia. J Pediatr Orthop. 2007;27(7):782–7.
Meyer J, Südbeck P, Held M, Wagner T, Schmitz ML, Bricarelli FD, et al. Mutational analysis of the SOX9 gene in campomelic dysplasia and autosomal sex reversal: lack of genotype/phenotype correlations. Hum Mol Genet 1997;6(1):91–98.
Lekovic GP, Rekate HL, Dickman CA, Pearson M. Congenital cervical instability in a patient with camptomelic dysplasia. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22(9):1212–4.
Bams-Mengerink AM, Koelman JH, Waterham H, Barth PG, Poll-The BT. The neurology of rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2013;8:174.
Violas P, Fraisse B, Chapuis M, Bracq H. Cervical spine stenosis in chondrodysplasia punctata. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2007;16(6):443–5.
Khandanpour N, Connolly DJ, Raghavan A, Griffiths PD, Hoggard N. Craniospinal abnormalities and neurologic complications of osteogenesis imperfecta: imaging overview. Radiographics 2012;32(7):2101–2112.
Leng LZ, Shajari M, Hartl R. Management of acute cervical compression fractures in two patients with osteogenesis imperfecta. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2010;35(22):E1248–52.
Arroyo IL, Barron KS, Brewer EJ Jr. Spinal cord compression by epidural lipomatosis in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1988;31(3):447–51.
Sherk HH, Pasquariello PS, Watters WC. Multiple dislocations of the cervical spine in a patient with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and Down’s syndrome. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1982;162:37–40.
Lawrence RC, Helmick CG, Arnett FC, Deyo RA, Felson DT, Giannini EH, et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and selected musculoskeletal disorders in the United States. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41(5):778–99.
Hensinger RN, DeVito PD, Ragsdale CG. Changes in the cervical spine in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1986;68(2):89–98.
Uziel Y, Rathaus V, Pomeranz A, Solan H, Wolach B. Torticollis as the sole initial presenting sign of systemic onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol. 1998;25(1):166–8.
Rawlins BA, Girardi FP, Boachie-Adjei O. Rheumatoid arthritis of the cervical spine. Rheum Dis Clin N Am. 1998;24(1):55–65.
Jurriaans E, Singh NP, Finlay K, Friedman L. Imaging of chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis. Radiol Clin N Am. 2001;39(2):305–27.
Kahn MF, Chamot AM. SAPHO syndrome. Rheum Dis Clin N Am. 1992;18(1):225–46.
Yu L, Kasser JR, O’Rourke E, Kozakewich H. Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis. Association with vertebra plana. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1989;71(1):105–12.
Gorham LW, Stout AP. Massive osteolysis (acute spontaneous absorption of bone, phantom bone, disappearing bone); its relation to hemangiomatosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1955;37-A(5):985–1004.
Martin JC, Desoysa R, O’Sullivan MM, Silverstone E, Williams H. Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis: spinal involvement and radiological appearances. Br J Rheumatol. 1996;35(10):1019–21.
Demharter J, Bohndorf K, Michl W, Vogt H. Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis: a radiological and clinical investigation of five cases. Skelet Radiol 1997;26(10):579–588.
Chun CS. Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis of the spine and mandible: case report and review of the literature. Pediatrics. 2004;113(4):e380–4.
Khanna G, Sato TS, Ferguson P. Imaging of chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis. Radiographics. 2009;29(4):1159–77.
Jansson AF, Grote V, Group ES. Nonbacterial osteitis in children: data of a German Incidence Surveillance Study. Acta Paediatr. 2011;100(8):1150–7.
El-Shanti HI, Ferguson PJ. Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis: a concise review and genetic update. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2007;462:11–9.
Beck C, Morbach H, Beer M, Stenzel M, Tappe D, Gattenlöhner S, et al. Chronic nonbacterial osteomyelitis in childhood: prospective follow-up during the first year of anti-inflammatory treatment. Arthritis Res Ther. 2010;12(2):R74.
Jurik AG, Egund N. MRI in chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis. Skelet Radiol. 1997;26(4):230–8.
King SM, Laxer RM, Manson D, Gold R. Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis: a noninfectious inflammatory process. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1987;6(10):907–911.
Kozlowski K, Masel J, Harbison S, Yu J. Multifocal chronic osteomyelitis of unknown etiology. Report of five cases. Pediatr Radiol. 1983;13(3):130–6.
Kayani I, Syed I, Saifuddin A, Green R, MacSweeney F. Vertebral osteomyelitis without disc involvement. Clin Radiol. 2004;59(10):881–91.
Mortensson W, Edeburn G, Fries M, Nilsson R. Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis in children. A roentgenologic and scintigraphic investigation. Acta Radiol. 1988;29(5):565–70.
Schilling F, Fedlmeier M, Eckardt A, Kessler S. Vertebral manifestation of chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis (CRMO). Rofo. 2002;174(10):1236–42. German.
Anderson SE, Heini P, Sauvain MJ, Stauffer E, Geiger L, Johnston JO, et al. Imaging of chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis of childhood first presenting with isolated primary spinal involvement. Skelet Radiol. 2003;32(6):328–36.
Carr AJ, Cole WG, Roberton DM, Chow CW. Chronic multifocal osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1993;75(4):582–91.
Baulot E, Bouillien D, Giroux EA, Grammont PM. Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis causing spinal cord compression. Eur Spine J 1998;7(4):340–343.
Wiley AM, Trueta J. The vascular anatomy of the spine and its relationship to pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1959;41-B:796–809.
Crock HV, Goldwasser M. Anatomic studies of the circulation in the region of the vertebral end-plate in adult Greyhound dogs. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1984;9(7):702–6.
Whalen JL, Parke WW, Mazur JM, Stauffer ES. The intrinsic vasculature of developing vertebral end plates and its nutritive significance to the intervertebral discs. J Pediatr Orthop. 1985;5(4):403–10.
Parke WW, Rothman RH, Brown MD. The pharyngovertebral veins: an anatomical rationale for Grisel’s syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1984;66(4):568–74.
Zigler JE, Bohlman HH, Robinson RA, Riley LH, Dodge LD. Pyogenic osteomyelitis of the occiput, the atlas, and the axis. A report of five cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1987;69(7):1069–1073.
Nyberg DA, ffrey RB, Brant-Zawadzki M, Federle M, Dillon W. Computed tomography of cervical infections. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1985;9(2):288–96.
Kemp HB, Jackson JW, Jeremiah JD, Hall AJ. Pyogenic infections occurring primarily in intervertebral discs. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1973;55(4):698–714.
Sapico FL, Montgomerie JZ. Pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis: report of nine cases and review of the literature. Rev Infect Dis. 1979;1(5):754–76.
Fernandez M, Carrol CL, Baker CJ. Discitis and vertebral osteomyelitis in children: an 18-year review. Pediatrics. 2000;105(6):1299–304.
Bruschwein DA, Brown ML, McLeod RA. Gallium scintigraphy in the evaluation of disk-space infections: concise communication. J Nucl Med. 1980;21(10):925–7.
Norris S, Ehrlich MG, McKusick K. Early diagnosis of disk space infection with 67Ga in an experimental model. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1979;144:293–8.
Haase D, Martin R, Marrie T. Radionuclide imaging in pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis. Clin Nucl Med. 1980;5(12):533–7.
Modic MT, Feiglin DH, Piraino DW, Boumphrey F, Weinstein MA, Duchesneau PM, et al. Vertebral osteomyelitis: assessment using MR. Radiology. 1985;157(1):157–66.
Bruns J, Maas R. Advantages of diagnosing bacterial spondylitis with magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 1989;108(1):30–5.
Digby JM, Kersley JB. Pyogenic non-tuberculous spinal infection: an analysis of thirty cases. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1979;61(1):47–55.
Frederickson B, Yuan H, Olans R. Management and outcome of pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1978;131:160–7.
Eismont FJ, Bohlman HH, Soni PL, Goldberg VM, Freehafer AA. Pyogenic and fungal vertebral osteomyelitis with paralysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1983;65(1):19–29.
Emery SE, Chan DP, Woodward HR. Treatment of hematogenous pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis with anterior debridement and primary bone grafting. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1989;14(3):284–91.
Forsythe M, Rothman RH. New concepts in the diagnosis and treatment of infections of the cervical spine. Orthop Clin North Am. 1978;9(4):1039–51.
Aulisa L, Pitta L, Aulisa AG, Mastantuoni G, Pola E, Leone A. Lumbar nerve root “walled” by a calcified herniated mass in a young patient. Childs Nerv Syst. 2003;19(5–6):384–6.
Harvet G, De Pontual L, Neven B, Mary P, Letamendia Richard E, Nathanson M, et al. Paediatric intervertebral calcifications: two cases report and review of the literature. Arch Pediatr. 2004;11(12):1457–61. French.
Gerlach R, Zimmermann M, Kellermann S, Lietz R, Raabe A, Seifert V. Intervertebral disc calcification in childhood–a case report and review of the literature. Acta Neurochir. 2001;143(1):89–93.
Ginalski JM, Landry M, Gudinchet F, Schnyder P. Is tomography of intervertebral disc calcification useful in children? Pediatr Radiol 1992;22(1):59–61.
Ginalski JM, Schnyder P, Gerster JC. Spontaneous regression of intervertebral disc calcifications in a child. Clin Rheumatol. 1991;10(1):87–9.
Park SM, Kim ES, Sung DH. Cervical radiculopathy caused by neural foraminal migration of a herniated calcified intervertebral disk in childhood: a case report. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(11):2214–7.
Sonnabend DH, Taylor TK, Chapman GK. Intervertebral disc calcification syndromes in children. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1982;64(1):25–31.
Mahlfeld K, Kayser R, Grasshoff H. Permanent thoracic myelopathy resulting from herniation of a calcified intervertebral disc in a child. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2002;11(1):6–9.
Bollini G, Bergoin M, Choux M, Padovani J. Disk calcifications in children. Apropos of 17 cases. Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot. 1984;70(5):377–82. French.
Causey AL, Evans OB, Lewis-Abney K. Intervertebral disk calcification: an unusual cause of acquired torticollis in childhood. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1996;12(5):356–9.
Herring JA, Hensinger RN. Cervical disc calcification. J Pediatr Orthop. 1988;8(5):613–6.
Coventry MB. Calcification in a cervical disc with anterior protrusion and dysphagia. A case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1970;52(7):1463–6.
Jawish R, Ponet M. Dysphagia disclosing a cervical disk calcification in a child. Apropos of a case and review of the literature. Chir Pediatr. 1990;31(2):127–30. French.
Bret P, Confavreux C, Thouard H, Pialat J. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the cervical spine: report of a case investigated by computed tomographic scanning and treated by a two-stage surgical procedure. Neurosurgery. 1982;10(1):111–5.
Wong CC, Pereira B, Pho RW. Cervical disc calcification in children. A long-term review. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1992;17(2):139–44.
Fielding JW, Hawkins RJ, Ratzan SA. Spine fusion for atlanto-axial instability. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1976;58(3):400–7.
Wetzel FT, La Rocca H. Grisel’s syndrome. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989;240:141–52.
Van Holsbeeck EM, MacKay NN. Diagnosis of acute atlanto-axial rotatory fixation. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1989;71(1):90–1.
Rinaldi I, Mullins WJ Jr, Delaney WF, Fitzer PM, Tornberg DN. Computerized tomographic demonstration of rotational atlanto-axial fixation. Case report. J Neurosurg. 1979;50(1):115–9.
Pang D, Li V. Atlantoaxial rotatory fixation: part 1–biomechanics of normal rotation at the atlantoaxial joint in children. Neurosurgery. 2004;55(3):614–25; discussion 625–6.
Pang D, Li V. Atlantoaxial rotatory fixation: part 2–new diagnostic paradigm and a new classification based on motion analysis using computed tomographic imaging. Neurosurgery. 2005;57(5):941–53; discussion 941–53.
Burkus JK, Deponte RJ. Chronic atlantoaxial rotatory fixation correction by cervical traction, manipulation, and bracing. J Pediatr Orthop. 1986;6(5):631–5.
Subach BR, McLaughlin MR, Albright AL, Pollack IF. Current management of pediatric atlantoaxial rotatory subluxation. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1998;23(20):2174–9.
Warner WC, Hedequist DJ. Cervical spine injuries in children. In: Beaty JH, Kassser JR, editors. Rockwood and Wilkins’ fractures in children. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006. p. 776–816.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer Science+Business Media LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Saadat, E., Hedequist, D.J., Wright, P. (2018). Pathology of the Child’s Cervical Spine and Its Clinical Implications. In: Hedequist, D., Shah, S., Yaszay, B. (eds) The Management of Disorders of the Child’s Cervical Spine. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7491-7_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7491-7_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-7489-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-7491-7
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)