Abstract
The home environment is an important influence on children’s health and development. We aimed to identify the specific actions, objects, events, and conditions within households that influence child well-being. This cross-sectional study was conducted in Kilifi District among 146 children aged 8–10 years. We derived the Kilifi-Home Inventory for Primary School Children (Kilifi-HIPSC) through the modification and adaption of an existing measure of the home environment. The final 45 items were grouped into subscales comprising items which cohered conceptually. The measure was suitable for both genders and applicable across its intended age range. Nutritional status and household wealth contributed to variance in Kilifi-HIPSC scores. In turn, the home environment was associated with language and motor outcomes in school-age children. The brevity of the measure facilitates quick screening of the promotive aspects of a child’s home environment.
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Appendix 1
Appendix 1
Modifications made on the Kilifi-HIPSC
Original version | Adapted version | Percentage endorsement | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 1 | 2 | ||
Changes in item format | ||||
(26) Parent buys and reads a newspaper daily | (29) A member of the family reads a newspaper | 59.6 | 24.7 | 15.8 |
(34) Family has a TV and it is used judiciously, not left on continuously | (34) Do you own a TV? Child is allowed free access and it is used judiciously, not left on continuously | 26.7 | 58.2 | 15.1 |
(36) Child is regularly included in family’s recreational hobby | (36) What do family members do when they have no chores? Is the child involved in that activity? | 75.3 | 15.8 | 8.9 |
(37) Family provides lessons or organizational membership to support child’s talents (Y membership, gymnastic lessons, art center, etc.) | (37) Family gives training through membership of registered organizations and/or at home to support the child’s talents | 88.4 | 6.2 | 5.5 |
(38) Child has ready access to at least two pieces of playground equipment in the immediate vicinity | (38) There are already things in the compound for the child to play with | 44.5 | 37.7 | 17.8 |
(39) Child has access to library card, and family arranges for child to go to library once a month | (39) Child regularly attends an activity out of the home | 96.6 | 1.4 | 2.1 |
(42) Family visits or receives visits from relatives or friends at least twice a month | (42) Family visits or receives visits from relatives or friends | 39.0 | 24.0 | 37.0 |
(48) Father (or father substitute) regularly engages in outdoor recreation with the child | (48) Father (or father substitute) engages child in games to pass time, for example, football | 91.1 | 7.5 | 1.4 |
(56) There is at least 100 square feet of living space per person in the house | (56) Number of rooms in the house and number of people in each room | 0 | 39.7 | 60.3 |
Changes in item content | ||||
(4) Child is encouraged to read on his own | (4) Child is encouraged to read. With whom does the child read? | 45.9 | 15.8 | 38.4 |
(27) Family has a dictionary and encourages child to use it | (31) Family has a Kiswahili dictionary and encourages child to use it | 89.7 | 10.3 | 0 |
(31) Child has free access to at least ten appropriate books | (28) Child has free access to children’s books | 71.2 | 8.2 | 20.5 |
(32) Child has free access to desk or other suitable place for reading or studying | (30) Child has an appropriate place to read and write | 34.2 | 19.2 | 46.6 |
(43) Child has accompanied parent on a family business venture 3–4 times within the past year (to garage, clothing shop, appliance repair shop, etc.) | (43) Child has accompanied parent on a family business trip within the past year (to buy clothes, etc.) | 74.7 | 15.1 | 10.3 |
(46) Parents discuss TV programs with child | (46) Parents discuss news about happenings in the neighborhood, country, or world with child | 45.9 | 11.0 | 43.2 |
(52) Child’s room has a picture or wall decoration appealing to children | (52) Efforts have been made to have or make equipment which is pleasing and stimulating to the child | 91.8 | 7.5 | 0.7 |
Changes in examples used in the item | ||||
(2) Parent sometimes yields to child’s fears or rituals (allows night light, accompanies child to new experiences, etc.) | (2) Parent sometimes yields to child’s fears or rituals (escorting child out at night, leaving light on at night) | 11.0 | 6.2 | 82.9 |
(13) Child puts his outdoor clothing, dirty clothes, and night clothes in special place | (13) Child knows how to keep school uniform or play clothes and “Sunday best” in a special place | 15.8 | 18.5 | 65.8 |
(30) Child has free access to musical instrument (piano, drum, ukulele, guitar, etc.) | (27) Child has free access to musical instrument (kayamba, drum, guitar, etc.) | 78.1 | 3.4 | 18.5 |
(44) Family member has taken child to (or arranged for child to attend) some type of live musical or theater performance | (44) Family member has taken child to (or arranged for child to attend) some national celebrations, wedding, choir presentation, or theater performance | 73.3 | 17.8 | 8.9 |
(47) Parent helps child to achieve motor skills—ride a two-wheel bicycle, roller skate, ice skate, play ball, etc. | (47) Parent helps child to achieve motor skills—pounding maize, carrying a load on the head, riding a bicycle, or swimming | 1.4 | 13.0 | 85.6 |
(58) Building has no potentially dangerous structural or health defects (e.g., plaster coming down from the ceiling, stairway with boards missing, rodents, etc.) | (58) Building has no potentially dangerous structural or health defects (e.g., broken wall plastering, falling walls, leaking roof, etc.) | 4.1 | 11.6 | 84.2 |
(14) Parents set limits for child and generally enforce them (curfew, homework, before TV, or other regulations that fit family pattern) | (14) Parents set limits for child and generally enforce them (school work, other regulations depending on family routines, e.g., playing near the road) | 1.4 | 2.7 | 95.9 |
(1) Family has fairly regular and predictable daily schedule for the child (meals, day care, bedtime, TV, homework, etc.) | (1) Family has fairly regular and predictable daily schedule for the child (meal times, bedtime, domestic work, etc.) | 0.7 | 7.5 | 91.8 |
(53) The interior of the apartment is not dark or perceptually monotonous | (53) The interior of the house is not dark or perceptually monotonous | 21.2 | 69.9 | 8.9 |
Deletion of item content | ||||
(29) Child has free access to record player or radio | (26) Do you own a radio? Does your child listen to the radio? How often? | 1.4 | 17.1 | 81.5 |
(41) Family member has taken the child on (or arranged for child to take) a plane, train, or bus trip within the past year | (41) Family member has taken the child on (or arranged for child to take) a bus trip within the past year | 28.8 | 24.7 | 46.6 |
Additional item | ||||
(60) Compound provides a variety of perceptual experiences | 59.6 | 20.5 | 19.9 | |
Other items | ||||
(3) Child has been praised at least twice during the past week for doing something | 31.5 | 8.9 | 59.6 | |
(5) Parent encourages child to contribute to the conversation during visit | 45.9 | 12.3 | 41.8 | |
(6) Parent shows some positive emotional responses to praise of child by visitor | 8.9 | 5.5 | 85.6 | |
(7) Parent responds to child’s questions during visit | 85.6 | 4.8 | 9.6 | |
(8) Parent uses complete sentence structure and some long words in conversing | 0 | 0 | 100.0 | |
(9) When speaking of or to child, parent’s voice conveys positive feelings | 2.7 | 3.4 | 93.8 | |
(10) Parent initiates verbal interchanges with visitor, asks questions, makes spontaneous comments | 0 | 0 | 100.0 | |
(11) Family requires child to carry out certain self-care routines, e.g., make bed, clean room | 1.4 | 73.3 | 25.3 | |
(12) Family requires child to keep living and play area reasonably clean and straight | 9.6 | 56.8 | 33.6 | |
(15) Parent introduces the visitor to the child | 92.5 | 4.1 | 3.4 | |
(16) Parent is consistent in establishing or applying family rules | 3.4 | 2.1 | 94.5 | |
(17) Parent does not violate rules of common courtesy during visit | 0.7 | 0 | 99.3 | |
(18) Parent has not lost temper with child more than once during previous week | 4.1 | 13.7 | 82.2 | |
(19) Parent reports no more than one instance of physical punishment occurred during the past month | 5.5 | 19.9 | 74.7 | |
(20) Child can express negative feeling toward parents without harsh reprisals | 16.4 | 4.1 | 79.5 | |
(21) Parent has not cried or been visibly upset in child’s presence more than once during the past week | 76.7 | 17.8 | 5.5 | |
(22) Child has a special place in which to keep his/her possessions | 69.9 | 8.9 | 21.2 | |
(23) Parent talks to child during visit (beyond correction and introduction) | 34.2 | 30.8 | 34.9 | |
(24) Parent uses some term of endearment or some diminutive for the child’s name when talking about child at least twice during visit | 8.2 | 72.6 | 19.2 | |
(25) Parent does not express overt annoyance with or hostility toward the child (complains, describes child as “bad,” says child won’t mind, etc.) | 3.4 | 7.5 | 89.0 | |
(32) (28) Child has visited a friend by him/herself in the past week | 22.6 | 12.3 | 65.1 | |
(33) House has at least two pictures or other type of art work on the walls | 79.5 | 7.5 | 13.0 | |
(35) Family encourages child to develop and sustain hobbies | 83.6 | 8.9 | 7.5 | |
(40) Family member has taken the child to (or arranged for child to visit) a scientific, historical, or art museum within the past year | 91.1 | 6.8 | 2.1 | |
(45) Family member has taken the child to (or arranged for child to take) a trip of more than 50 miles from home (50 miles radial distance, not total distance) | 43.2 | 26.0 | 30.8 | |
(49) Child sees and spends some time with father or father figure 4 days a week | 19.9 | 65.8 | 14.4 | |
(50) Child eats at least one meal per day, on most days, with mother and father (or mother and father figures) | 30.8 | 15.8 | 53.4 | |
(51) Child has remained with this primary family group for all his life aside from 2- to 3-week vacations, illnesses of mother, visits of grandmother, etc. | 13.0 | 10.3 | 76.7 | |
(54) In terms of available space, the rooms are not overcrowded with furniture | 18.5 | 8.2 | 73.3 | |
(55) All visible rooms of the house are reasonably clean and minimally cluttered | 24.7 | 17.8 | 57.5 | |
(57) House is not overly noisy—shouts of children, radio, etc. | 5.5 | 70.5 | 24.0 | |
(59) Child’s outside play environment appears safe and free of hazards | 5.5 | 23.3 | 71.2 | |
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Kitsao-Wekulo, P.K. et al. (2017). Exploring Differences in the Rural Home Environment: The Role of Biological and Environmental Factors. In: Abubakar, A., van de Vijver, F. (eds) Handbook of Applied Developmental Science in Sub-Saharan Africa. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7328-6_3
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