Abstract
During the last few years tailored therapies have improved overall survival of patients with metastatic disease. However, iatrogenic selection pressure continues to drive the evolution of systemically spread cancer cells, resulting in the generation of aggressive and therapy-resistant tumor cells. The outcome is cancer relapse and death in the majority of patients. In early disease stages, (neo) adjuvant targeted therapies often fail for unknown reasons. Therefore, diagnostic and therapeutic strategies have to be reevaluated on the basis of an evolutionary concept of disease. This obviously implies the ability to monitor the molecular evolution of the disease. To this end, a novel diagnostic pathology for systemic cancer has to be developed that will enable precision medicine for cancer patients.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Gupta GP, Massague J (2006) Cancer metastasis building a framework. Cell 127:679–695
Steeg PS (2006) Tumor metastasis mechanistic insights and clinical challenges. Nat Med 12:895–904
Douillard JY, Siena S, Cassidy J, Tabernero J, Burkes R, Barugel M, Humblet Y, Bodoky G, Cunningham D, Jassem J, Rivera F, Kocakova I, Ruff P, Blasinska-Morawiec M, Smakal M, Canon JL, Rother M, Oliner KS, Wolf M, Gansert J (2010) Randomized, phase III trial of panitumumab with infusional fluorouracil, leucovorin, and oxaliplatin (FOLFOX4) versus FOLFOX4 alone as first-line treatment in patients with previously untreated metastatic colorectal cancer the PRIME study. J Clin Oncol 28:4697–4705
Mok TS, Wu YL, Thongprasert S, Yang CH, Chu DT, Saijo N, Sunpaweravong P, Han B, Margono B, Ichinose Y, Nishiwaki Y, Ohe Y, Yang JJ, Chewaskulyong B, Jiang H, Duffield EL, Watkins CL, Armour AA, Fukuoka M (2009) Gefitinib or carboplatin-paclitaxel in pulmonary adenocarcinoma. N Engl J Med 361:947–957
Slamon DJ, Leyland-Jones B, Shak S, Fuchs H, Paton V, Bajamonde A, Fleming T, Eiermann W, Wolter J, Pegram M, Baselga J, Norton L (2001) Use of chemotherapy plus a monoclonal antibody against HER2 for metastatic breast cancer that overexpresses HER2. N Engl J Med 344:783–792
Sosman JA, Kim KB, Schuchter L, Gonzalez R, Pavlick AC, Weber JS, McArthur GA, Hutson TE, Moschos SJ, Flaherty KT, Hersey P, Kefford R, Lawrence D, Puzanov I, Lewis KD, Amaravadi RK, Chmielowski B, Lawrence HJ, Shyr Y, Ye F, Li J, Nolop KB, Lee RJ, Joe AK, Ribas A (2012) Survival in BRAF V600-mutant advanced melanoma treated with vemurafenib. N Engl J Med 366:707–714
Alberts SR, Sargent DJ, Nair S, Mahoney MR, Mooney M, Thibodeau SN, Smyrk TC, Sinicrope FA, Chan E, Gill S, Kahlenberg MS, Shields AF, Quesenberry JT, Webb TA, Farr GH Jr, Pockaj BA, Grothey A, Goldberg RM (2012) Effect of oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and leucovorin with or without cetuximab on survival among patients with resected stage III colon cancer a randomized trial. JAMA 307:1383–1393
Goss GD, O’Callaghan C, Lorimer I, Tsao MS, Masters GA, Jett J, Edelman MJ, Lilenbaum R, Choy H, Khuri F, Pisters K, Gandara D, Kernstine K, Butts C, Noble J, Hensing TA, Rowland K, Schiller J, Ding K, Shepherd FA (2013) Gefitinib versus placebo in completely resected non-small-cell lung cancer results of the NCIC CTG BR19 study. J Clin Oncol 31:3320–3326
Nowell PC (1976) The clonal evolution of tumor cell populations. Science 194:23–28
Cairns J (1975) Mutation selection and the natural history of cancer. Nature 255:197–200
Greaves M, Maley CC (2012) Clonal evolution in cancer. Nature 481:306–313
Heng HH, Stevens JB, Bremer SW, Liu G, Abdallah BY, Ye CJ (2011) Evolutionary mechanisms and diversity in cancer. Adv Cancer Res 112:217–253
Klein CA (2013) Selection and adaptation during metastatic cancer progression. Nature 501:365–372
Stratton MR (2011) Exploring the genomes of cancer cells progress and promise. Science 331:1553–1558
Gerlinger M, Rowan AJ, Horswell S, Larkin J, Endesfelder D, Gronroos E, Martinez P, Matthews N, Stewart A, Tarpey P, Varela I, Phillimore B, Begum S, McDonald NQ, Butler A, Jones D, Raine K, Latimer C, Santos CR, Nohadani M, Eklund AC, Spencer-Dene B, Clark G, Pickering L, Stamp G, Gore M, Szallasi Z, Downward J, Futreal PA, Swanton C (2012) Intratumor heterogeneity and branched evolution revealed by multiregion sequencing. N Engl J Med 366:883–892
Navin N, Kendall J, Troge J, Andrews P, Rodgers L, McIndoo J, Cook K, Stepansky A, Levy D, Esposito D, Muthuswamy L, Krasnitz A, McCombie WR, Hicks J, Wigler M (2011) Tumour evolution inferred by single-cell sequencing. Nature 472:90–94
Patel AP, Tirosh I, Trombetta JJ, Shalek AK, Gillespie SM, Wakimoto H, Cahill DP, Nahed BV, Curry WT, Martuza RL, Louis DN, Rozenblatt-Rosen O, Suva ML, Regev A, Bernstein BE (2014) Single-cell RNA-seq highlights intratumoral heterogeneity in primary glioblastoma. Science 344:1396–1401
Klein CA, Blankenstein TJ, Schmidt-Kittler O, Petronio M, Polzer B, Stoecklein NH, Riethmuller G (2002) Genetic heterogeneity of single disseminated tumour cells in minimal residual cancer. Lancet 360:683–689
Wang Y, Waters J, Leung ML, Unruh A, Roh W, Shi X, Chen K, Scheet P, Vattathil S, Liang H, Multani A, Zhang H, Zhao R, Michor F, Meric-Bernstam F, Navin NE (2014) Clonal evolution in breast cancer revealed by single nucleus genome sequencing. Nature 512:155
Verhaak RG, Hoadley KA, Purdom E, Wang V, Qi Y, Wilkerson MD, Miller CR, Ding L, Golub T, Mesirov JP, Alexe G, Lawrence M, O’Kelly M, Tamayo P, Weir BA, Gabriel S, Winckler W, Gupta S, Jakkula L, Feiler HS, Hodgson JG, James CD, Sarkaria JN, Brennan C, Kahn A, Spellman PT, Wilson RK, Speed TP, Gray JW, Meyerson M, Getz G, Perou CM, Hayes DN, Cancer Genome Atlas Research N (2010) Integrated genomic analysis identifies clinically relevant subtypes of glioblastoma characterized by abnormalities in PDGFRA, IDH1, EGFR, and NF1. Cancer Cell 17:98–110
Maley CC, Galipeau PC, Finley JC, Wongsurawat VJ, Li X, Sanchez CA, Paulson TG, Blount PL, Risques RA, Rabinovitch PS, Reid BJ (2006) Genetic clonal diversity predicts progression to esophageal adenocarcinoma. Nat Genet 38:468–473
Park SY, Gonen M, Kim HJ, Michor F, Polyak K (2010) Cellular and genetic diversity in the progression of in situ human breast carcinomas to an invasive phenotype. J Clin Invest 120:636–644
Almendro V, Kim HJ, Cheng YK, Gonen M, Itzkovitz S, Argani P, van Oudenaarden A, Sukumar S, Michor F, Polyak K (2014) Genetic and phenotypic diversity in breast tumor metastases. Cancer Res 74:1338–1348
Fidler IJ (2003) The pathogenesis of cancer metastasis the ‘seed and soil’ hypothesis revisited. Nat Rev Cancer 3:453–458
Kang Y, Pantel K (2013) Tumor cell dissemination emerging biological insights from animal models and cancer patients. Cancer Cell 23:573–581
Nguyen DX, Bos PD, Massague J (2009) Metastasis from dissemination to organ-specific colonization. Nat Rev Cancer 9:274–284
Valastyan S, Weinberg RA (2011) Tumor metastasis molecular insights and evolving paradigms. Cell 147:275–292
Chambers AF, Groom AC, MacDonald IC (2002) Dissemination and growth of cancer cells in metastatic sites. Nat Rev Cancer 2:563–572
Klein G (1998) Foulds’ dangerous idea revisited the multistep development of tumors 40 years later. Adv Cancer Res 72:1–23
Fearon ER, Vogelstein B (1990) A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis. Cell 61:759–767
Weinstein IB, Joe A (2008) Oncogene addiction. Cancer Res 68:3077–3080, discussion 3080
Gianni L, Dafni U, Gelber RD, Azambuja E, Muehlbauer S, Goldhirsch A, Untch M, Smith I, Baselga J, Jackisch C, Cameron D, Mano M, Pedrini JL, Veronesi A, Mendiola C, Pluzanska A, Semiglazov V, Vrdoljak E, Eckart MJ, Shen Z, Skiadopoulos G, Procter M, Pritchard KI, Piccart-Gebhart MJ, Bell R, Herceptin Adjuvant Trial Study T (2011) Treatment with trastuzumab for 1 year after adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with HER2-positive early breast cancer a 4-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 12:236–244
Douillard JY, Shepherd FA, Hirsh V, Mok T, Socinski MA, Gervais R, Liao ML, Bischoff H, Reck M, Sellers MV, Watkins CL, Speake G, Armour AA, Kim ES (2010) Molecular predictors of outcome with gefitinib and docetaxel in previously treated non-small-cell lung cancer data from the randomized phase III INTEREST trial. J Clin Oncol 28:744–752
Liu D, Aguirre Ghiso J, Estrada Y, Ossowski L (2002) EGFR is a transducer of the urokinase receptor initiated signal that is required for in vivo growth of a human carcinoma. Cancer Cell 1:445–457
Stoecklein NH, Klein CA (2010) Genetic disparity between primary tumours, disseminated tumour cells, and manifest metastasis. Int J Cancer 126:589–598
Gow CH, Chang YL, Hsu YC, Tsai MF, Wu CT, Yu CJ, Yang CH, Lee YC, Yang PC, Shih JY (2009) Comparison of epidermal growth factor receptor mutations between primary and corresponding metastatic tumors in tyrosine kinase inhibitor-naive non-small-cell lung cancer. Ann Oncol 20:696–702
Klein CA (2009) Parallel progression of primary tumours and metastases. Nat Rev Cancer 9:302–312
Banys M, Gruber I, Krawczyk N, Becker S, Kurth R, Wallwiener D, Jakubowska J, Hoffmann J, Rothmund R, Staebler A, Fehm T (2012) Hematogenous and lymphatic tumor cell dissemination may be detected in patients diagnosed with ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast. Breast Cancer Res Treat 131:801–808
Husemann Y, Geigl JB, Schubert F, Musiani P, Meyer M, Burghart E, Forni G, Eils R, Fehm T, Riethmuller G, Klein CA (2008) Systemic spread is an early step in breast cancer. Cancer Cell 13:58–68
Sanger N, Effenberger KE, Riethdorf S, Van Haasteren V, Gauwerky J, Wiegratz I, Strebhardt K, Kaufmann M, Pantel K (2011) Disseminated tumor cells in the bone marrow of patients with ductal carcinoma in situ. Int J Cancer 129:2522–2526
Schardt JA, Meyer M, Hartmann CH, Schubert F, Schmidt-Kittler O, Fuhrmann C, Polzer B, Petronio M, Eils R, Klein CA (2005) Genomic analysis of single cytokeratin-positive cells from bone marrow reveals early mutational events in breast cancer. Cancer Cell 8:227–239
Schmidt-Kittler O, Ragg T, Daskalakis A, Granzow M, Ahr A, Blankenstein TJ, Kaufmann M, Diebold J, Arnholdt H, Muller P, Bischoff J, Harich D, Schlimok G, Riethmuller G, Eils R, Klein CA (2003) From latent disseminated cells to overt metastasis genetic analysis of systemic breast cancer progression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100:7737–7742
Stoecklein NH, Hosch SB, Bezler M, Stern F, Hartmann CH, Vay C, Siegmund A, Scheunemann P, Schurr P, Knoefel WT, Verde PE, Reichelt U, Erbersdobler A, Grau R, Ullrich A, Izbicki JR, Klein CA (2008) Direct genetic analysis of single disseminated cancer cells for prediction of outcome and therapy selection in esophageal cancer. Cancer Cell 13:441–453
Weckermann D, Polzer B, Ragg T, Blana A, Schlimok G, Arnholdt H, Bertz S, Harzmann R, Klein CA (2009) Perioperative activation of disseminated tumor cells in bone marrow of patients with prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 27:1549–1556
Klein CA (2011) Framework models of tumor dormancy from patient-derived observations. Curr Opin Genet Dev 21:42–49
Burrell RA, Swanton C (2014) Tumour heterogeneity and the evolution of polyclonal drug resistance. Mol Oncol 8:1095
Ashworth TR (1869) A case of cancer in which cells similar to those in the tumours were seen in the blood after death. Aust Med J 14:146–147
Fischer JC, Niederacher D, Topp SA, Honisch E, Schumacher S, Schmitz N, Zacarias Fohrding L, Vay C, Hoffmann I, Kasprowicz NS, Hepp PG, Mohrmann S, Nitz U, Stresemann A, Krahn T, Henze T, Griebsch E, Raba K, Rox JM, Wenzel F, Sproll C, Janni W, Fehm T, Klein CA, Knoefel WT, Stoecklein NH (2013) Diagnostic leukapheresis enables reliable detection of circulating tumor cells of nonmetastatic cancer patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:16580–16585
Miller MC, Doyle GV, Terstappen LW (2010) Significance of circulating tumor cells detected by the cell search system in patients with metastatic breast colorectal and prostate cancer. J Oncol 2010:617421
Schlimok G, Funke I, Holzmann B, Göttlinger G, Schmidt G, Häuser H, Swierkot S, Warnecke HH, Schneider B, Koprowski H (1987) Micrometastatic cancer cells in bone marrow in vitro detection with anti-cytokeratin and in vivo labeling with anti-17-1A monoclonal antibodies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 84:8672–8676
Tibbe AG, Miller MC, Terstappen LW (2007) Statistical considerations for enumeration of circulating tumor cells. Cytometry A 71:154–162
Allard WJ, Matera J, Miller MC, Repollet M, Connelly MC, Rao C, Tibbe AG, Uhr JW, Terstappen LW (2004) Tumor cells circulate in the peripheral blood of all major carcinomas but not in healthy subjects or patients with nonmalignant diseases. Clin Cancer Res 10:6897–6904
Pantel K, Deneve E, Nocca D, Coffy A, Vendrell JP, Maudelonde T, Riethdorf S, Alix-Panabieres C (2012) Circulating epithelial cells in patients with benign colon diseases. Clin Chem 58:936–940
Cohen SJ, Punt CJ, Iannotti N, Saidman BH, Sabbath KD, Gabrail NY, Picus J, Morse M, Mitchell E, Miller MC, Doyle GV, Tissing H, Terstappen LW, Meropol NJ (2008) Relationship of circulating tumor cells to tumor response, progression-free survival, and overall survival in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 26:3213–3221
Cristofanilli M, Hayes DF, Budd GT, Ellis MJ, Stopeck A, Reuben JM, Doyle GV, Matera J, Allard WJ, Miller MC, Fritsche HA, Hortobagyi GN, Terstappen LW (2005) Circulating tumor cells a novel prognostic factor for newly diagnosed metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 23:1420–1430
de Bono JS, Scher HI, Montgomery RB, Parker C, Miller MC, Tissing H, Doyle GV, Terstappen LW, Pienta KJ, Raghavan D (2008) Circulating tumor cells predict survival benefit from treatment in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 14:6302–6309
Rack B, Schindlbeck C, Juckstock J, Andergassen U, Hepp P, Zwingers T, Friedl TW, Lorenz R, Tesch H, Fasching PA, Fehm T, Schneeweiss A, Lichtenegger W, Beckmann MW, Friese K, Pantel K, Janni W, Group SS (2014) Circulating tumor cells predict survival in early average-to-high risk breast cancer patients. J Natl Cancer Inst 106:dju066
Klein CA (2003) The systemic progression of human cancer a focus on the individual disseminated cancer cell--the unit of selection. Adv Cancer Res 89:35–67
Riethdorf S, Pantel K (2009) Clinical relevance and current challenges of research on disseminating tumor cells in cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res 11(Suppl 3):S10
Fehm T, Braun S, Muller V, Janni W, Gebauer G, Marth C, Schindlbeck C, Wallwiener D, Borgen E, Naume B, Pantel K, Solomayer E (2006) A concept for the standardized detection of disseminated tumor cells in bone marrow from patients with primary breast cancer and its clinical implementation. Cancer 107:885–892
Riethdorf S, Wikman H, Pantel K (2008) Review: biological relevance of disseminated tumor cells in cancer patients. Int J Cancer 123:1991–2006
Janni W, Vogl FD, Wiedswang G, Synnestvedt M, Fehm T, Juckstock J, Borgen E, Rack B, Braun S, Sommer H, Solomayer E, Pantel K, Nesland J, Friese K, Naume B (2011) Persistence of disseminated tumor cells in the bone marrow of breast cancer patients predicts increased risk for relapse--a European pooled analysis. Clin Cancer Res 17:2967–2976
Banys M, Solomayer EF, Gebauer G, Janni W, Krawczyk N, Lueck HJ, Becker S, Huober J, Kraemer B, Wackwitz B, Hirnle P, Wallwiener D, Fehm T (2013) Influence of zoledronic acid on disseminated tumor cells in bone marrow and survival results of a prospective clinical trial. BMC Cancer 13:480
Synnestvedt M, Borgen E, Wist E, Wiedswang G, Weyde K, Risberg T, Kersten C, Mjaaland I, Vindi L, Schirmer C, Nesland JM, Naume B (2012) Disseminated tumor cells as selection marker and monitoring tool for secondary adjuvant treatment in early breast cancer. Descriptive results from an intervention study. BMC Cancer 12:616
Kubuschok B, Passlick B, Izbicki JR, Thetter O, Pantel K (1999) Disseminated tumor cells in lymph nodes as a determinant for survival in surgically resected non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 17:19–24
Ulmer A, Dietz K, Hodak I, Polzer B, Scheitler S, Yildiz M, Czyz Z, Lehnert P, Fehm T, Hafner C, Schanz S, Rocken M, Garbe C, Breuninger H, Fierlbeck G, Klein CA (2014) Quantitative measurement of melanoma spread in sentinel lymph nodes and survival. PLoS Med 11:e1001604
Balch CM, Gershenwald JE, Soong SJ, Thompson JF, Atkins MB, Byrd DR, Buzaid AC, Cochran AJ, Coit DG, Ding S, Eggermont AM, Flaherty KT, Gimotty PA, Kirkwood JM, McMasters KM, Mihm MC Jr, Morton DL, Ross MI, Sober AJ, Sondak VK (2009) Final version of 2009 AJCC melanoma staging and classification. J Clin Oncol 27:6199–6206
Muller V, Riethdorf S, Rack B, Janni W, Fasching PA, Solomayer E, Aktas B, Kasimir-Bauer S, Pantel K, Fehm T, group Ds (2012) Prognostic impact of circulating tumor cells assessed with the Cell Search System and AdnaTest Breast in metastatic breast cancer patients the DETECT study. Breast Cancer Res 14:R118
Riethdorf S, Muller V, Zhang L, Rau T, Loibl S, Komor M, Roller M, Huober J, Fehm T, Schrader I, Hilfrich J, Holms F, Tesch H, Eidtmann H, Untch M, von Minckwitz G, Pantel K (2010) Detection and HER2 expression of circulating tumor cells prospective monitoring in breast cancer patients treated in the neoadjuvant GeparQuattro trial. Clin Cancer Res 16:2634–2645
Fehm T, Muller V, Aktas B, Janni W, Schneeweiss A, Stickeler E, Lattrich C, Lohberg CR, Solomayer E, Rack B, Riethdorf S, Klein C, Schindlbeck C, Brocker K, Kasimir-Bauer S, Wallwiener D, Pantel K (2010) HER2 status of circulating tumor cells in patients with metastatic breast cancer a prospective, multicenter trial. Breast Cancer Res Treat 124:403–412
Lankiewicz S, Rother E, Zimmermann S, Hollmann C, Korangy F, Greten TF (2008) Tumour-associated transcripts and EGFR deletion variants in colorectal cancer in primary tumour, metastases and circulating tumour cells. Cell Oncol 30:463–471
Pestrin M, Bessi S, Puglisi F, Minisini AM, Masci G, Battelli N, Ravaioli A, Gianni L, Di Marsico R, Tondini C, Gori S, Coombes CR, Stebbing J, Biganzoli L, Buyse M, Di Leo A (2012) Final results of a multicenter phase II clinical trial evaluating the activity of single-agent lapatinib in patients with HER2-negative metastatic breast cancer and HER2-positive circulating tumor cells. A proof-of-concept study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 134:283–289
Stebbing J, Payne R, Reise J, Frampton AE, Avery M, Woodley L, Di Leo A, Pestrin M, Krell J, Coombes RC (2013) The efficacy of lapatinib in metastatic breast cancer with HER2 non-amplified primary tumors and EGFR positive circulating tumor cells a proof-of-concept study. PLoS One 8:e62543
Maheswaran S, Sequist LV, Nagrath S, Ulkus L, Brannigan B, Collura CV, Inserra E, Diederichs S, Iafrate AJ, Bell DW, Digumarthy S, Muzikansky A, Irimia D, Settleman J, Tompkins RG, Lynch TJ, Toner M, Haber DA (2008) Detection of mutations in EGFR in circulating lung-cancer cells. N Engl J Med 359:366–377
Robinson DR, Wu YM, Vats P, Su F, Lonigro RJ, Cao X, Kalyana-Sundaram S, Wang R, Ning Y, Hodges L, Gursky A, Siddiqui J, Tomlins SA, Roychowdhury S, Pienta KJ, Kim SY, Roberts JS, Rae JM, Van Poznak CH, Hayes DF, Chugh R, Kunju LP, Talpaz M, Schott AF, Chinnaiyan AM (2013) Activating ESR1 mutations in hormone-resistant metastatic breast cancer. Nat Genet 45:1446–1451
Yu M, Bardia A, Aceto N, Bersani F, Madden MW, Donaldson MC, Desai R, Zhu H, Comaills V, Zheng Z, Wittner BS, Stojanov P, Brachtel E, Sgroi D, Kapur R, Shioda T, Ting DT, Ramaswamy S, Getz G, Iafrate AJ, Benes C, Toner M, Maheswaran S, Haber DA (2014) Cancer therapy. Ex vivo culture of circulating breast tumor cells for individualized testing of drug susceptibility. Science 345:216–220
Gianni L, Eiermann W, Semiglazov V, Lluch A, Tjulandin S, Zambetti M, Moliterni A, Vazquez F, Byakhov MJ, Lichinitser M, Climent MA, Ciruelos E, Ojeda B, Mansutti M, Bozhok A, Magazzu D, Heinzmann D, Steinseifer J, Valagussa P, Baselga J (2014) Neoadjuvant and adjuvant trastuzumab in patients with HER2-positive locally advanced breast cancer (NOAH) follow-up of a randomised controlled superiority trial with a parallel HER2-negative cohort. Lancet Oncol 15:640–647
Krishnamurthy S, Bischoff F, Ann Mayer J, Wong K, Pham T, Kuerer H, Lodhi A, Bhattacharyya A, Hall C, Lucci A (2013) Discordance in HER2 gene amplification in circulating and disseminated tumor cells in patients with operable breast cancer. Cancer Med 2:226–233
Paik S, Kim C, Wolmark N (2008) HER2 status and benefit from adjuvant trastuzumab in breast cancer. N Engl J Med 358:1409–1411
Perez EA, Reinholz MM, Hillman DW, Tenner KS, Schroeder MJ, Davidson NE, Martino S, Sledge GW, Harris LN, Gralow JR, Dueck AC, Ketterling RP, Ingle JN, Lingle WL, Kaufman PA, Visscher DW, Jenkins RB (2010) HER2 and chromosome 17 effect on patient outcome in the N9831 adjuvant trastuzumab trial. J Clin Oncol 28:4307–4315
Korkaya H, Paulson A, Iovino F, Wicha MS (2008) HER2 regulates the mammary stem/progenitor cell population driving tumorigenesis and invasion. Oncogene 27:6120–6130
Ithimakin S, Day KC, Malik F, Zen Q, Dawsey SJ, Bersano-Begey TF, Quraishi AA, Ignatoski KW, Daignault S, Davis A, Hall CL, Palanisamy N, Heath AN, Tawakkol N, Luther TK, Clouthier SG, Chadwick WA, Day ML, Kleer CG, Thomas DG, Hayes DF, Korkaya H, Wicha MS (2013) HER2 drives luminal breast cancer stem cells in the absence of HER2 amplification implications for efficacy of adjuvant trastuzumab. Cancer Res 73:1635–1646
Dawson SJ, Tsui DW, Murtaza M, Biggs H, Rueda OM, Chin SF, Dunning MJ, Gale D, Forshew T, Mahler-Araujo B, Rajan S, Humphray S, Becq J, Halsall D, Wallis M, Bentley D, Caldas C, Rosenfeld N (2013) Analysis of circulating tumor DNA to monitor metastatic breast cancer. N Engl J Med 368:1199–1209
Bettegowda C, Sausen M, Leary RJ, Kinde I, Wang Y, Agrawal N, Bartlett BR, Wang H, Luber B, Alani RM, Antonarakis ES, Azad NS, Bardelli A, Brem H, Cameron JL, Lee CC, Fecher LA, Gallia GL, Gibbs P, Le D, Giuntoli RL, Goggins M, Hogarty MD, Holdhoff M, Hong SM, Jiao Y, Juhl HH, Kim JJ, Siravegna G, Laheru DA, Lauricella C, Lim M, Lipson EJ, Marie SK, Netto GJ, Oliner KS, Olivi A, Olsson L, Riggins GJ, Sartore-Bianchi A, Schmidt K, Shih IM, Oba-Shinjo SM, Siena S, Theodorescu D, Tie J, Harkins TT, Veronese S, Wang TL, Weingart JD, Wolfgang CL, Wood LD, Xing D, Hruban RH, Wu J, Allen PJ, Schmidt CM, Choti MA, Velculescu VE, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B, Papadopoulos N, Diaz LA Jr (2014) Detection of circulating tumor DNA in early- and late-stage human malignancies. Sci Transl Med 6:224ra24
Araki T, Yamamoto A, Yamada M (1987) Accurate determination of DNA content in single cell nuclei stained with Hoechst 33258 fluorochrome at high salt concentration. Histochemistry 87:331–338
Telenius H, Carter NP, Bebb CE, Nordenskjold M, Ponder BA, Tunnacliffe A (1992) Degenerate oligonucleotide-primed PCR general amplification of target DNA by a single degenerate primer. Genomics 13:718–725
Zhang L, Cui X, Schmitt K, Hubert R, Navidi W, Arnheim N (1992) Whole genome amplification from a single cell implications for genetic analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:5847–5851
Klein CA, Schmidt-Kittler O, Schardt JA, Pantel K, Speicher MR, Riethmuller G (1999) Comparative genomic hybridization, loss of heterozygosity, and DNA sequence analysis of single cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96:4494–4499
Blanco L, Bernad A, Lazaro JM, Martin G, Garmendia C, Salas M (1989) Highly efficient DNA synthesis by the phage phi 29 DNA polymerase. Symmetrical mode of DNA replication. J Biol Chem 264:8935–8940
Dean FB, Nelson JR, Giesler TL, Lasken RS (2001) Rapid amplification of plasmid and phage DNA using Phi 29 DNA polymerase and multiply-primed rolling circle amplification. Genome Res 11:1095–1099
Zong C, Lu S, Chapman AR, Xie XS (2012) Genome-wide detection of single-nucleotide and copy-number variations of a single human cell. Science 338:1622–1626
Mehes G, Witt A, Kubista E, Ambros PF (2001) Circulating breast cancer cells are frequently apoptotic. Am J Pathol 159:17–20
Moller EK, Kumar P, Voet T, Peterson A, Van Loo P, Mathiesen RR, Fjelldal R, Grundstad J, Borgen E, Baumbusch LO, Naume B, Borresen-Dale AL, White KP, Nord S, Kristensen VN (2013) Next-generation sequencing of disseminated tumor cells. Front Oncol 3:320
Binder V, Bartenhagen C, Okpanyi V, Gombert M, Moehlendick B, Behrens B, Klein HU, Rieder H, Ida Krell PF, Dugas M, Stoecklein NH, Borkhardt A (2014) A new workflow for whole-genome sequencing of single human cells. Hum Mutat 35:1260–1270
Voet T, Kumar P, Van Loo P, Cooke SL, Marshall J, Lin ML, Zamani Esteki M, Van der Aa N, Mateiu L, McBride DJ, Bignell GR, McLaren S, Teague J, Butler A, Raine K, Stebbings LA, Quail MA, D’Hooghe T, Moreau Y, Futreal PA, Stratton MR, Vermeesch JR, Campbell PJ (2013) Single-cell paired-end genome sequencing reveals structural variation per cell cycle. Nucleic Acids Res 41:6119–6138
Handyside AH, Robinson MD, Simpson RJ, Omar MB, Shaw MA, Grudzinskas JG, Rutherford A (2004) Isothermal whole genome amplification from single and small numbers of cells a new era for preimplantation genetic diagnosis of inherited disease. Mol Hum Reprod 10:767–772
Hellani A, Coskun S, Benkhalifa M, Tbakhi A, Sakati N, Al-Odaib A, Ozand P (2004) Multiple displacement amplification on single cell and possible PGD applications. Mol Hum Reprod 10:847–852
Daley T, Smith AD (2014) Modeling genome coverage in single cell sequencing. Bioinformatics 30:3159
Ni X, Zhuo M, Su Z, Duan J, Gao Y, Wang Z, Zong C, Bai H, Chapman AR, Zhao J, Xu L, An T, Ma Q, Wang Y, Wu M, Sun Y, Wang S, Li Z, Yang X, Yong J, Su XD, Lu Y, Bai F, Xie XS, Wang J (2013) Reproducible copy number variation patterns among single circulating tumor cells of lung cancer patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:21083–21088
Polzer B, Medoro G, Pasch S, Fontana F, Zorzino L, Pestka A, Andergassen U, Meier-Stiegen F, Czyz ZT, Alberter B, Treitschke S, Schamberger T, Sergio M, Bregola G, Doffini A, Gianni S, Calanca A, Signorini G, Bolognesi C, Hartmann A, Fasching PA, Sandri MT, Rack B, Fehm R, Giorgini G, Manaresi N, Klein CA. Molecular profiling of single circulating tumor cells with diagnostic intention. EMBO Mol Med 2014; 6(11):1371–86.
Smerage JB, Barlow WE, Hortobagyi GN, Winer EP, Leyland-Jones B, Srkalovic G, Tejwani S, Schott AF, O’Rourke MA, Lew DL, Doyle GV, Gralow JR, Livingston RB, Hayes DF (2014) Circulating tumor cells and response to chemotherapy in metastatic breast cancer SWOG S0500. J Clin Oncol 32:3483
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Polzer, B., Klein, C.A. (2016). Evolution of Metastatic Disease: The Need for Monitoring and Emerging Therapeutic Opportunities. In: Cote, R., Datar, R. (eds) Circulating Tumor Cells. Current Cancer Research. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3363-1_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3363-1_14
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-3361-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-3363-1
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)