Abstract
The somatic treatment chapter consists of five narrative sections that include the pharmacotherapeutic agents indicated in the treatment of schizophrenia, depression, mania, all five anxiety disorders, and dementia. An additional section summarizes the hypnotic agents currently available for the treatment of short-term and long-term insomnia. Drug dosing tables congruent with the narrative sections have been inserted.
Each section is organized in a similar fashion with subsections for indications, efficacy, dosing, and adverse effects. The chapter is copiously referenced with primarily randomized controlled trials serving as the basis for the treatment recommendations. The intent of the chapter is to present a succinct summary of a spectrum of clinical psychopharmacotherapeutic data that is sufficiently referenced that the reader is able to consult the primary literature should additional questions arise regarding the recommendations contained in the chapter.
This is a revision of a previous chapter authored by Drs. P.J. Perry, H.J. Wehring, B. Alexander, and B. Liskow.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Davis JM, Chen N, Glick ID. A meta-analysis of the efficacy of second-generation antipsychotics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:553–564.
Love RC, Mackowick M, Carpenter D, Burks EJ. Expert consensus-based medication-use evaluation criteria for atypical antipsychotic drugs. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2003;60:2455–2470.
Kane JM, Marder SR. Psychopharmacologic treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:287–302.
Geddes J, Freemantle N, Harrison P, Bebbington P. Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: systematic overview and meta-regression analysis [see comment]. BMJ 2000;321:1371–1376.
Miller DD. Review and management of clozapine side effects. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61:14–17.
Zarate CA Jr, Daniel DG, Kinon BJ, Litman RE, Naber D, Pickar D, Sato M. Algorithms for the treatment of schizophrenia. Psychopharmacol Bull 1995;31:461–467.
Leucht S, Pitschel-Walz D, Abraham D, Kissling W. Effiacy and extrapyramidal side effects of the new antipsychotics olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and sertindole compared to conventional antipsychotics and placebo. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Schizophr Res 1999;35:51–68.
Keefe RS, Seidman LJ, Christensen BK, Hamer RM, Sharma T, Sitskoorn MM, Lewine RR, Yurgelun-Todd DA, Gur RC, Tohen M, Tollefson GD, Sanger TM, Lieberman JA. Comparative effect of atypical and conventional antipsychotic drugs on neurocognition in first-episode Psychosis: A Randomized, Double-Blind Trial of Olanzapine Versus Low Doses of Haloperidol. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161:985–995.
Robinson DG, Woerner MG, Alvir JM, Geisler S, Koreen A, Sheitman B, Chakos M, Mayerhoff D, Bilder R, Goldman R, Lieberman JA. Predictors of treatment response from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156:544–549.
Kane JM, McGlashan TH. Treatment of schizophrenia. Lancet 1995;346:820–825.
Janicak PG. The relevance of clinical pharmacokinetics and therapeutic drug monitoring: anticonvulsant mood stabilizers and antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:35–41.
Alexander B. Antipsychotics: how strict the formulary? Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1988;22:324–326.
Kissling W, Kane JM, Barnes TR, Denker SJ, Fleischhacker WW, Goldstein MJ, Johnson DAW, Marder SR, Muller-Spahn F, Tegeler J, Wistedt B, Woggon B. Guidelines for neuroleptic relapse prevention in schizophrenia: Towards a consensus view. In: Kissling W, editor, Guidelines for Neuroleptic Relapse Prevention in Schizophrenia. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1991. p. 155–163.
Freedman R. Drug therapy: Schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1738–1749.
Davis JM, Chen N, Glick ID. Web supplement: a meta-analysis of the efficacy of second-generation antipsychotics. www.psych.uic.edu/faculty/davis/Meta_analysis.pdf 2005.
Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS, Rosenheck RA, Perkins DO, Keefe RS, Davis SM, Davis CE, Lebowitz BD, Severe J, Hsiao JK; Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) Investigators. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1209–1223.
Anonymous: Clozaril [clozapine] Product Information; 1998.
Jayaram MB, Hosalli P. Risperidone versus olanzapine for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005;2:CD005237
Meltzer HY, Okayli. Reduction of suicidality during clozapine treatment of neuroleptic-resistant schizophrenia: impact on risk-benefit assessment. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:183–190.
McEvoy JP, Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, Davis SM, Meltzer HY, Rosenheck RA, Swartz MS, Perkins DO, Keefe RS, Davis CE, Severe J, Hsiao JK; CATIE Investigators. Effectiveness of clozapine versus olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia who did not respond to prior atypical antipsychotic treatment. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:600–610.
Lindstrom LH. The effect of long-term treatment with clozapine in schizophrenia: a retrospective study in 96 patients treated with clozapine for up to 13 years. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1988;77:524–529.
Honigfeld G, Patin J. A two-year clinical and economic follow-up of patients on clozapine. Hosp Comm Psychiatry 1990;41:882–885.
Miller DD, Perry PJ, Cadoret RJ, Andreasen NC. Clozapine's effect on negative symptoms in treatment-refractory schizophrenics. Compr Psychiatry 1994;35:8–15.
Josiassen RC, Joseph A, Kohegyi E, Stokes S, Dadvand M, Paing WW, Shaughnessy RA. Clozapine augmented with risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:130–136.
Anil Yağcioğlu AE, Kivircik Akdede BB, Turgut TI, Tümüklü M, Yazici MK, Alptekin K, Ertuğrul A, Jayathilake K, Göğüş A, Tunca Z, Meltzer HY. A double-blind controlled trial of adjunctive treatment with risperidone in schizophrenic patients partially responsive to clozapine: efficacy and safety. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:63–72.
Banov MD, Zarate CA Jr, Tohen M, Scialabba D, Wines JD Jr, Kolbrener M, Kim JW, Cole JO. Clozapine therapy in refractory affective disorders: polarity predicts response in long-term follow-up. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:295–300.
Yatham LN. Atypical antipsychotics for bipolar disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2005;28:325–347.
Keck PE: The role of second-generation antipsychotic monotherapy in the rapid control of acute bipolar mania. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:5–11.
Perlis RH. The role of pharmacologic treatment guidelines for bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:37–47.
Wragg RE, Jeste DV. Neuroleptics and alternative treatments: management of behavioral symptoms and psychosis in Alzheimer's disease and related conditions. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1998;11:195–213.
Schneider LS, Degerman KS. Psychosis of Alzheimer's disease: clinical characteristics and history. J Psychiatr Res 2004;38:105–111.
Kane J, Ingenito G, Ali M. Efficacy of aripiprazole in psychotic disorders: comparison with haloperidol and placebo. Schizophr Res 2000;41:39.
Anonymous: Abilify [aripiprazole] Product Information. 2004.
Perry PJ, Miller DD. The clinical utility of clozapine plasma concentrations. In: Marder DR, Davis JM, Janicak PG, editors. Clinical use of neuroleptic plasma levels. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association Publishing;1993. p. 85–100.
Anonymous: Clozaril [clozapine] Product Information. 2005.
Anonymous: Zyprexa [olanzapine] Product Information. 2004.
Volavka J, Czobor P, Sheitman B, Lindenmayer JP, Citrome L, McEvoy JP, Cooper TB, Chakos M, Lieberman JA. Clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, and haloperidol in the treatment of patients with chronic schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:255–262.
Anonymous: Risperdal® [risperidone] Product Information. 2005.
Anonymous: Risperdal® [risperidone] Product Information. 2006.
Anonymous: Seroquel [quetiapine] Product Information. 2005.
Anonymous: Geodon [ziprasidone] Product Information. 2004.
Lieberman JA, Kane JM, Johns CA. Clozapine: guidelines for clinical management. J Clin Psychiatry 1989;50:329–338.
Beasley CM Jr, Sanger T, Satterlee W, Tollefson G, Tran P, Hamilton S.. Olanzapine versus placebo: results of a double-blind, fixed-dose olanzapine trial. Psychopharmacology 1996;124:159–167.
Glassman AH, Bigger JT Jr. Antipsychotic drugs: prolonged QTc interval, torsade de pointes, and sudden death. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1774–1782.
Beasley CM Jr, Tollefson G, Tran P, Satterlee W, Sanger T, Hamilton S. Olanzapine versus placebo and haloperidol: acute phase results of the North American double-blind olanzapine trial. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996;14:111–123.
Herrmann N, Muhammad M, Lancet K. Atypical antipsychotics and risk of cerebrovascular accidents. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:1113–1115.
Gill SS, Rochon PA, Herrmann N, Lee PE, Sykora K, Gunraj N, Normand SL, Gurwitz JH, Marras C, Wodchis WP, Mamdani M.. Atypical antipsychotic drugs and risk of ischaemic stroke: population based retrospective cohort study. BMJ. 2005;330:445.
Layton D, Harris S, Wilton LV, Shakir SA.Comparison of incidence rates of cerebrovascular accidents and transient ischaemic attacks in observational cohort studies of patients prescribed risperidone, quetiapine or olanzapine in general practice in England including patients with dementia. J Psychopharmacol 2005;19:473–482.
Finkel S, Kozma C, Long S, Greenspan A, Mahmoud R, Baser O, Engelhart L. Risperidone treatment in elderly patients with dementia: relative risk of cerebrovascular events versus other antipsychotics. Int Psychogeriatr 2005;17:617–629.
Anonymous: Cymbalta [duloxetine] Product Information. 2004.
Marder SR, Essock SM, Miller AL, Buchanan RW, Casey DE, Davis JM, Kane JM, Lieberman JA, Schooler NR, Covell N, Stroup S, Weissman EM, Wirshing DA, Hall CS, Pogach L, Pi-Sunyer X, Bigger JT Jr, Friedman A, Kleinberg D, Yevich SJ, Davis B, Shon S. Physical health monitoring of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:1334–1349.
Boehm G, Racoosin JA, Laughren TP, Katz R. Consensus development conference on antipsychotic drugs and obesity and diabetes: response to consensus statement. Diabetes Care 2004;27:2088–2089.
American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27:15–35.
Kleinberg DL, Davis JM, de Coster R, Van Baelen B, Brecher M. Prolactin levels and adverse events in patients treated with risperidone. J Clin Psychopahrmacol 1999;19:57–61.
Goff DC, Posever T, Herz L, Simmons J, Kletti N, Lapierre K, Wilner KD, Law CG, Ko GN. An exploratory haloperidol-controlled dose-finding study of ziprasidone in hospitalized patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998;18:296–304.
Mendhekar DN, Lohia RC, Jiloha RC. Olanzapine-induced galactorrhea in a woman with psychotic illness. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2004;38:266.
Umbricht DSG, Pollack S, Kane JM. Clozapine and weight gain. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:157–160.
Perry PJ, Argo TR, Carnahan RM, Lund BC, Holman TL, Ellingrod VL, Miller D.The association of weight gain and olanzapine plasma concentrations. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2005;25:250–254.
Alvir JMA, Lieberman JA. A reevaluation of the clinical characteristics of clozapine-induced granulocytosis in light of the United States experience. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:87–89.
Alvir JMA, Lieberman JA. Agranulocytosis: incidence and risk factors. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:137–138.
Brown CS, Markowitz JS, Moore TR, Parker NG. Atypical antipsychotics, part II: adverse drug reactions, drug interactions, and costs. Ann Pharmacotherapy 1999;33:210–217.
Worrel JA, Marken PA, Beckman SE, Ruehter VL. Atypical antipsychotic agents: a critical review. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2000;57:238–255.
Koller EA, Cross JT, Doraiswamy PM, Malozowski SN. Pancreatitis associated with atypical antipsychotics: from the Food and Drug Administration’s medwatch surveillance system and published reports. Pharmacotherapy 2003;23:1123–1130.
Cohen LJ. Risperidone. Pharmacotherapy 1994;14:253–265.
Perry PJ, Alexander B, Liskow BI. Psychotropic Drug Handbook, 8th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 2006.
Kelly DL, Conley RR, Carpenter WT. First-episode schizophrenia: a focus on pharmacological treatment and safety considerations. Drugs 2005;65:1113–1138.
Tollefson GD, Beasley CM Jr, Tamura RN, Tran PV, Potvin JH. Blind, controlled, long-term study of the comparative incidence of treatment-emergent tardive dyskinesia with olanzapine or haloperidol. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1248–1254.
Anonymous: Abilify [aripiprazole] Product Information 2005.
Safferman A, Lieberman JA, Kane JM, Szymanski S, Kinon B. Update on the clinical efficacy and side effects of clozapine. Schizophr Bull 1991;17:247–261.
Hegarty JD, Baldessarini RJ, Tohen M, Waternaux C, Oepen G. One hundred years of schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of the outcome literature. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:1409–1416.
Davis JM, Casper R. Antipsychotic drugs: clinical pharmacology and therapeutic use. Drugs 1977;14:260–282.
Davis JM, Janicak PG, Singla A, Sharma RP. Maintenance antipsychotic medication. In: Barnes TR, editor, Antipsychotic Drugs and Their Side Effects. London: Academic Press; 1993. p. 182–203.
Wolkowitz OM. Rational polypharmacy in schizophrenia. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1993;5:79–90.
Cheine M, Ahonen J, Wahlbeck K. Beta-blocker supplementation of standard drug treatment for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;3:CD000234.
Leucht S, McGrath J, White P, Kissling W. Carbamazepine for schizophrenia and schizoaffective psychoses. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;3:CD001258
Tempier RP, Pawliuk NH. Conventional, atypical, and combination antipsychotic prescriptions: a 2-year comparison. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64:673–679.
Stahl SM Antipsychotic polypharmacy: squandering precious resources? J Clin Psychiatry 2002;63:93–94.
Centorrino F, Goren JL, Hennen J, Salvatore P, Kelleher JP, Baldessarini RJ. Multiple versus single antipsychotic agents for hospitalized psychiatric patients: case-control study of risks versus benefits. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:700–706.
Keck PE Jr, McElroy SL, Strakowski SM. New developments in the pharmacologic treatment of schizoaffective disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:41–48.
Goodwin FK, Zis AP. Lithium in the treatment of mania, Comparison with neuroleptics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979;36:840–844.
Chou J C-Y. Recent advances in treatment of mania. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1991;11:3–21.
Sernyak MJ, Woods SW. Chronic neuroleptic use in manic-depressive illness. Psychopharmacol Bull 1993;29:375–381.
Keck PE, McElroy SL, Strakowski SM, Balistreri TM, Kizer DI, West SA. Factors associated with maintenance antipsychotic treatment of patients with bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:147–151.
Schneider LS, Pollock VE, Lyeness SA. A meta-analysis of controlled trials of neuroleptics. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990;38:553–563.
Sunderland T. Treatment of the elderly suffering from psychosis and dementia. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:53–56.
Black JL, Richelson E, Richardson JW. Antipsychotic agents: a clinical update. Mayo Clin Proc 1985;60:777–789.
Baldessarini RJ, Cohen BM, Teicher MH. Significance of neuroleptic dose and plasma level in the pharmacological treatment of psychoses. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:79–91.
Waraich PS, Adams CE, Roque M, Hamill KM, Marti J. Haloperidol dose for the acute phase of schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;3:CD001951.
Battaglia J (2005). Pharmacological management of acute agitation. Drugs 2005;65:1207–1222.
Ortiz A, Gershon S. The future of neuroleptic psychopharmacology. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;47:3–11.
Aubree JC, Lader MH. High and very high dosage anti-psychotics: a critical review. J Clin Psychiatry 1980;41:341–350.
Brotman AW, McCormick S. A role for high-dose antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:164–166.
Davis JM, Kane JM, Marder SR, Brauzer B, Gierl B, Schooler N, Casey DE, Hassan M. Dose response of prophylactic antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:24–30.
Marder SR, Ames D, Wirshing WC, Van Putten T. Schizophrenia. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1993;16:567–587.
Marder SR, Wirshing WC, Van Putten T, Mintz J, McKenzie J, Johnston-Cronk K, Lebell M, Liberman RP. Fluphenazine vs placebo supplementation for prodromal signs of relapse in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994;51:280–287.
Shenoy RS, Sadler AG, Goldberg SC, Hamer RM, Ross B. Effects of a six-week drug holiday on symptom status, relapse, and tardive dyskinesia in chronic schizophrenics. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1981;1:141–145.
Groves JE, Mandel MR. The long-acting phenothiazines. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1975;32:893–900.
Yadalam KG, Simpson GM. Changing from oral to depot fluphenazine. J Clin Psychiatry 1988;49:346–348.
Johnson DA. Antipsychotic medication: clinical guidelines for maintenance therapy. J Clin Psychiatry 1985;46:6–15.
Chouinard G, Annable L, Campbell W. A randomized clinical trial of haloperidol decanoate and fluphenazine decanoate in the outpatient treatment of schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1989;9:247–253.
Kane JM. Dosage strategies with long-acting injectable neuroleptics including haloperidol decanoate. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1986;6:20–23.
Beresford R, Ward A. Haloperidol decanoate: a preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in psychosis. Drugs 1987;33:31–49.
De Cuyper H, Bollen J, van Praag HM, Verstraeten D. Pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy of haloperidol decanoate after loading dose administration. Br J Psychiatry 1986;148:560–566.
Gitlin MJ, Midha KK, Fogelson D, Nuechterlein K. Persistence of fluphenazine in plasma after decanoate withdrawal. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1988;8:53–56.
Nayak RK, Doose DR, Nair NP. The bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of oral and depot intramuscular haloperidol in schizophrenic patients. J Clin Pharmacol 1987;27:144–150.
Wistedt B, Wiles DH, Kolakowska T. Slow decline of plasma drug and prolactin levels after discontinuation of chronic treatment with depot neuroleptics. Lancet 1981;1:1163.
Kissling W, Möller HJ, Walter K, Wittmann B, Krueger R, Trenk D. Double-blind comparison of haloperidol decanoate and fluphenazine decanoate effectiveness, side effects, dosage and serum levels during a six month treatment for relapse prevention. Pharmacopsychiatry 1985;18:240–245.
Raskind MA and Risse SE. Antipsychotic drugs and the elderly. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;47:17–22.
Whalley LJ. Drug treatment of dementia. Br J Psychiatry 1989;155:595–611.
Rhoades HM, Overall JE. Side effect potentials of different antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs. Psychopharmacol Bull 1984;20:83–88.
Malhotra AK, Litman RE, Pickar D. Adverse effects of antipsychotic drugs. Drug Saf 1993;9:429–436.
Simpson GM, Pi EH, Sramek JJ. ADR of antipsychotic agents. Drugs 1981;21:138–151.
Shader RI, DiMascio A, editors. Psychotropic drug side effects, clinical and theoretical perspectives. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1970. p. 4–9, 63–85, 92–106, 116–23, 149–74, 175–198.
Anonymous: Mellaril [thioridazine] Product Information. 2000.
Hartigan-Go K, Bateman DN, Nyberg G, Mårtensson E, Thomas SH. Concentration-related pharmacodynamic effects of thioridazine and its mtabolites in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996;60:543–553.
Opler LA, Feinberg SS. The role of pimozide in clinical psychiatry: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 1991;52:221–233.
Tueth MJ, Cheong JA. Clinical uses of pimozide. South Med J 1993;48:344–349.
Sultana A, McMonagle T. Pimozide for schizophrenia or related psychoses. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;3:CD001949.
Sullivan G, Lukoff D. Sexual side effects of antipsychotic medication: eva1uation and interventions. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1990;41:1238–1241.
Zito J, Sofair JB, Jaeger J. Self-reported neuroendocrine effects of antipsychotics in women: a pilot study. DICP Ann Pharmacother 1990;24:176–180.
Inoue H, Hazama H, Ogura C. Neuroendocrinological study of amenorrhea induced by antipsychotic drugs. Folia Psychiatr Neurol (Jpn) 1980;34:181.
Overall JE. Prior psychiatric treatment and the development of breast cancer. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1978;35:898–899.
Brookes G, Ahmed AG. Pharmacological treatments for psychosis-related polydipsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;4:CD003544.
Leadbetter RA, Shutty MS. Differential effects of neuroleptics and clozapine on polydipsia and intermittent hyponatremia. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:110–113.
Parent MM, Roy S, Sramek J, Lawson W, Herrera J. Effect of molindone on weight change in hospitalized schizophrenic patients. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1986;20:873–875.
Caroff SN, Mann SC, Campbell EC. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Adverse Drug Reaction Bulletin 2001;209:799–802.
Caroff SN, Mann SC. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Med Clin North Am 1993;77:185–202.
Rosenberg MR, Green M. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:1927–1931.
Shalev A, Hermesh H, Munitz H. Mortality from neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1989;50:18–25.
Goldberg PE, Weinberger DR. Effect of neuroleptic medication on cognition of patients with schizophrenia: a review of recent studies. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:62–65.
Lee A. Treatment of drug-induced dystonic reactions. JACED 1979;8:453–457.
Van Putten T, May PRA, Marder SA. Akathisia with haloperidol and thiothixene. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:1036–1039.
Fleischhacker WW, Roth SD, Kane JM. The pharmacologic treatment of neuroleptic-induced akathisia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990;10:12–21.
Wirshing WC, Freidenberg DL, Cummings JL, Bartzokis G. Effects of anticholinergic agents on patients with tardive dyskinesia and concomitant drug-induced parkinsonism. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1989;9:407–411.
Kane JM. The current status of neuroleptic therapy. J Clin Psychiatry 1989;50:322–328.
Casey DE, Povlsen UJ, Meidahl B, Gerlach J. Neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia and parkinsonism: changes during several years of continuing treatment. Psychopharmacol Bull 1986;22:250–253.
Bergen JA, Eyland EA, Campbell JA, Jenkings P, Kellehear K, Richards A, Beumont PJ. The course of tardive dyskinesia in patients on long-term neuroleptics. Br J Psychiatry 1989;154:523–528.
Munetz MR, Benjamin S. How to examine patients using the abnormal involuntary movement scale. Hosp Commun Psychiatry 1988;39:1172–1177.
Davis JM, Schyve PM, Pavkovic I. Clinical and legal issues in neuroleptic use. Clin Neuropharmacol 1983;6:117–128.
Kahne GJ. Rebound psychoses following the discontinuation of a high potency antipsychotic. Can J Psychiatry 1989;34:227–229.
Segraves RT. Effects of psychotropic drugs on human erection and ejaculation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:275–284.
Chan J, Alldredge BK, Baskin LS. Perphenazine-induced priapism. DICP Ann Pharmacother 1990;24:246–249.
Depression Guideline Panel: Depression in Primary Care: Volume 2. Treatment of Major Depression. Clinical Practice Guideline, Number 5. Rockville, MD. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. AHCPR Publication No. 93–0551. April, 1993.
Anderson IM. Meta-analytical studies on new antidepressants. Br Med Bull 2001;57:161–178.
Brown WA. Johnson MF. Chen MG. Clinical features of depressed patients who do and do not improve with placebo. Psychiatry Res 1992;41:203–214.
Fairchild CJ, Rush AJ, Vasavada N, Giles DE, Khatami M. Which depressions respond to placebo? Psychiatry Res 1986;18:217–226.
Khan A, Dager SR, Cohen S, Avery DH, Scherzo B, Dunner DL. Chronicity of depressive episode in relation to antidepressant-placebo response. Neuropsychoharmcology 1991;4:125–130.
Downing RW, Rickels K. Predictors of response to amitriptyline and placebo in three outpatient treatment settings. J Nerv Mend Dis 1973;156:109–129.
Parker G, Parker K, Austin MP, Mitchell P, Brotchie H. Gender differences in response to differing antidepressant drug classes: two negative studies. Psychological Med 2003;33:1473–1477.
Joyce PR, Mulder RT, Luty SE, McKenzie JM, Rae AM. A differential response to nortriptyline and fuoxetine in melancholic depression: the importance of age and gender. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2003;108:20–23.
Baca E. Garcia-Garcia M. Porras-Chavarino A. Gender differences in treatment response to sertraline versus imipramine in patients with nonmelancholic depressive disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004;28:57–65.
Perry PJ. Pharmacotherapy for major depression with melancholic features: tricyclic versus selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants. J Affective Disord 1996;39:1–6.
Clerc GE, Ruimy P, Verdeau-Pailles J. A double-blind comparison of venlafaxine and fluoxetine in patients hospitalized for major depression and melancholia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1994;9:139–143.
Rothschild AJ, Samson JA, Bessette MP. Efficacy of the combination of fluoxetine and perphenazine in the treatment of psychotic depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:338–342.
Rothschild AJ, Williamson DJ, Tohen MF, Schatzberg A, Andersen SW, Van Campen LE, Sanger TM, Tollefson GD. A double blind randomized study of olanzapine and olanzapine/fluoxetine combination for major depression with psychotic features. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2004;24:365–373.
Wolfersdorf M, Barg T, König F, Leibfarth M, Grünewald I. Paroxetine as antidepressant in combined antidepressant-neuroleptic therapy in delusional depression: observation of clinical use. Pharmacopsychiatry 1995;28:56–60.
McGrath PJ, Stewart JW, Janal MN, Petkova E, Quitkin FM, Klein DF. A placebo-controlled study of fluoxetine versus imipramine in the acute treatment of atypical depression. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:344–350.
Pande AC, Birkett M, Fechner-Bates S, Haskett RF, Greden JF. Fluoxetine versus phenelzine in atypical depression. Biol Psychiatry 1996;40:1017–1020.
Reimherr FW, Wood DR, Byerley B, Brainard J, Grosser BI. Characteristics of responders to fluoxetine. Psychopharmacol Bull 1984;20:70–72.
Stratta P, Bolino F, Cupillari M, Casacchia M. A double-blind parallel study comparing fluoxetine with imipramine in the treatment of atypical depression. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1991;6:193–196.
Nemeroff CB, Evans DL, Gyulai L, Sachs GS, Bowden CL, Gergel IP, Oakes R, Pitts CD. Double blind placebo-controlled comparison of imipramine and paroxetine in the treatment of bipolar depression. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:906–912.
Tohen M, Vieta E, Calabrese J, Ketter TA, Sachs G, Bowden C, Mitchell PB, Centorrino F, Risser R, Baker RW, Evans AR, Beymer K, Dube S, Tollefson GD, Breier A. Efficacy of olanzapine and olanzapine-fluoxetine combination in the treatment of bipolar I depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:1079–1088.
Ayd FJ. Patient compliance. Int Drug Ther Newsletter 1972;7:33–40.
Thase ME, Rush AJ. Treatment-resistant depression. In: Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ, editors, Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1995. p. 1081–1097.
Amsterdam JD, Hornig-Rohan M. Treatment algorithms in treatment-resistant depression. Psychiatric Clin N America 1996;19:371–386.
Bauer M, Dopfmer S. Lithium augmentation in treatment-resistant depression: meta-analysis of placebo-controlled studies. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999;19:427–434.
Trivedi MH, Fava M, Wisniewski SR, Thase ME, Quitkin F, Warden D, Ritz L, Nierenberg AA, Lebowitz BD, Biggs MM, Luther JF, Shores-Wilson K, Rush AJ; STAR*D Study Team. Medication augmentation after the faiure of SSRIs for depression. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1243–1252.
American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for major depressive disorder in adults. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1–26.
Montgomery SA, Dufour H, Brion S, Gailledreau J, Laqueille X, Ferrey G, Moron P, Parant-Lucena N, Singer L, Danion JM. The prophylactic efficacy of fluoxetine in unipolar depression. Br J Psychiatry 1988;153:69–76.
Montgomery SA, Dunbar GC. Paroxetine is better than placebo in relapse prevention and the prophylaxis of recurrent depression. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1993;8:189–195.
Alexopoulos GS, Abrams RC. Depression in Alzheimer’s disease. Psych Clin N Am 1991;14:327–340.
American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with Alzheimer's disease and other dementias of late life. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1–39.
Small GW, Rabins PV, Barry PP, Buckholtz NS, DeKosky ST, Ferris SH, Finkel SI, Gwyther LP, Khachaturian ZS, Lebowitz BD, McRae TD, Morris JC, Oakley F, Schneider LS, Streim JE, Sunderland T, Teri LA, Tune LE. Diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer disease and related disorders. Consensus statement of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, the Alzheimer's Association, and the American Geriatrics Society. JAMA 1997;278:1363–1371.
Lyketsos CG, DelCampo L, Steinberg M, Miles Q, Steele CD, Munro C, Baker AS, Sheppard JM, Frangakis C, Brandt J, Rabins PV. Treating depression in Alzheimer disease: efficacy and safety of sertraline therapy, and the benefits of depression reduction: the DIADS. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:737–746.
Mendez MF, Cummings JL, Benson DF. Depression in epilepsy. Significance and phenomenology. Arch Neurol 1986;43:766–770.
Robertson MM, Trimble MR. The treatment of depression in patients with epilepsy a double-blind trial. J Affective Disord 1985;9:127–136.
Joffe RT, Lippert GP, Gray TA, Sawa G, Horvath Z. Personal and family history of affective illness in patients with multiple sclerosis. J Affect Disord 1987;12:63–65.
Benedetti F, Campori E, Colombo C, Smeraldi E. Fluvoxamine treatment of major depression associated with multiple sclerosis. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004;16:364–366.
Schiffer RB, Wineman NM. Antidepressant pharmacotherapy of depression associated with multiple sclerosis. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:1493–1497.
Morris PL, Robinson RG, Raphael B. Prevalence and course of depressive disorders in hospitalized stroke patients. Int J Psychiatry Med 1990;20:349–364.
Andersen G, Vestergaard K, Lauritzen L. Effective treatment of post-stoke depression with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram. Stroke 1994;25:1099–1104.
Lipsey JR, Robinson RG, Pearlson GD. Nortriptyline treatment of post-stroke depression: a double-blind study. Lancet 1984;1:297–300.
Reding MJ, Orto LA, Winter SW, Fortuna IM, Di Ponte P, McDowell FH. Antidepressant therapy after stroke. A double blind trial. Arch Neurol 1986;43:763–765.
Robinson RG, Schultz SK, Castillo C, Kopel T, Kosier JT, Newman RM, Curdue K, Petracca G, Starkstein SE. Nortriptyline versus fluoxetine in the treatment of depression and in short-term recovery after stroke: a placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:351–359.
Wiart L, Petit H, Joseph PA, Mazaux JM, Barat M. Fluoxetine in early poststroke depression: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Stroke 2000;31:1829–1832.
Jorge RE, Robinson RG, Arndt S, Starkstein S. Mortality and poststroke depression: a placebo-controlled trial of antidepressants. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1823–1829.
Spalletta G, Guida G, Caltagirone C. Is left stroke a risk-factor for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressant treatment resistance? J Neurology 2003;250:449–455.
Bukberg J, Penman D, Holland JC. Depression in hospitalized cancer patients. Psychosom Med 1984;46:199–212.
Pezzella G, Moslinger-Gehmayr R, Contu A. Treatment of depression in patients with breast cancer: a comparison between paroxetine and amitriptyline. Breast Cancer Res Treatment 2001;70:1–10.
Paile-Hyvarinen M, Wahlbeck K, Eriksson JG. Quality of life and metabolic status in mildly depressed women with type 2 diabetes treated with paroxetine: a single-blind randomised placebo controlled trial. BMC Fam Prac 2003;4:7.
Turkington RW. Depression masquerading as diabetic neuropathy. JAMA 1980;243:1147–1150.
Arnold LM., Keck PE Jr, Welge JA. Antidepressant treatment of fibromyalgia. A meta-analysis and review. Psychosomatics 2000;41:104–113.
Arnold LM, Hess EV, Hudson JI, Welge JA, Berno SE, Keck PE Jr. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, flexible-dose study of fluoxetine in the treatment of women with fibromyalgia. Am J Med 2002;112:191–197.
Arnold LM, Rosen A, Pritchett YL, D'Souza DN, Goldstein DJ, Iyengar S, Wernicke JF. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of duloxetine in the treatment of women with fibromyalgia with or without major depressive disorder. Pain 2006;119:5–15.
Rabkin JG, Wagner GJ, Rabkin R. Fluoxetine treatment for depression in patients with HIV and AIDS: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:101–107.
Rabkin JG, Rabkin R, Harrison W, Wagner G. Effect of imipramine on mood and enumerative measures of immune status in depressed patients with HIV illness. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:516–523.
Schleifer SJ, Macari-Hinson MM, Coyle DA, Slater WR, Kahn M, Gorlin R, Zucker HD. The nature and course of depression following myocardial infaction. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:1785–1789.
Barth J, Schumacher M, Herrmann-Lingen C. Depression as a risk factor for mortality in patients with coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. Psychosomatic Med 2004;66:802–813.
Kavan MG, Elsasser GN, Hurd RH. Depression after acute myocardial infarction. Post Grad Med 1991;89:83–89.
Strik JJ, Honig A, Lousberg R, Lousberg AH, Cheriex EC, Tuynman-Qua HG, Kuijpers PM, Wellens HJ, Van Praag HM. Efficacy and safety of fluoxetine in the treatment of patients with major depression after first myocardial infarction: findings from a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Psychosom Med 2000;62:783–789.
Schlienger RG, Fischer LM, Jick H, Meier CR. Current use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk of acute myocardial infarction. Drug Safety 2004;27:1157–1165.
Wisner KL, Wheeler SB. Prevention of recurrent postpartum major depression. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1994;45:1191–1196.
Appleby L, Warner R, Whitton A, Faragher B. A controlled study of fluoxetine and cognitive-behavioural counselling in the treatment of postnatal depression. BMJ 1997;314:932–936.
Goff DC, Midha KK, Sarid-Segal O, Hubbard JW, Amico E. A placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine added to neuroleptic in patients with schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 1995;117:417–423.
Buchanan RW, Kirkpatrick B, Bryant N, Ball P, Breier A. Fluoxetine augmentation of clozapine treatment in patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:1625–1627.
Kramer MS, Vogel WH, DiJohnson C, Dewey DA, Sheves P, Cavicchia S, Little P, Schmidt R, Kimes I. Antidepressants in depressed schizophrenic inpatients: a controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:922–928.
Prusoff BA, Williams DH, Weissman MM, Astrachan BM. Treatment of secondary depression in schizophrenia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of amitriptyline added to perphenazine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979;36:569–575.
Spina E, De Domenico P, Ruello C, Longobardo N, Gitto C, Ancione M, Di Rosa AE, Caputi AP. Adjunctive fluoxetine in the treatment of negative symptoms in chronic schizophrenic patients. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1994;9:281–285.
Bradford D, Stroup S, Lieberman J. Pharmacological treatments for schizophrenia. In: Nathan PD, Gorman JN, editors, A guide to treatments that work, 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002.
Wernicke JF, Dunlop SR, Dornseif BE, Bosomworth JC, Humbert M. Low dose fluoxetine therapy for depression. Psychopharmacol Bull 1988;23:163–168.
De Wilde J, Spiers R, Mertens C, Bartholomé F, Schotte G, Leyman S. A double-blind comparative, multicentre study comparing paroxetine with fluoxetine in depressed patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993;87:141–145.
Aguglia E, Casacchia M, Cassano GB, Faravelli C, Ferrari G, Giordano P, Pancheri P, Ravizza L, Trabucchi M, Bolino F. Double-blind study of the efficacy and safety of sertraline versus fluoxetine in major depression. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1993;8:197–202.
Burke WJ, Gergel I, Bose A. Fixed-dose trial of the single isomer SSRI escitalopram in depressed outpatients. J Clin Psychiatry 2002;63:331–336.
Ray WA, Meredith S, Thapa PB, Hall K, Murray KT. Cyclic antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death. Clin Pharmacol Therap 2004;75:234–241.
Lipinski JF Jr, Mallya G, Zimmerman P, Pope HG Jr. Fluoxetine-induced akathisia: clinical and theoretical implications. J Clin Psychiatry 1989;50:339–342.
Jacobsen FM. Fluoxetine-induced sexual dysfunction and an open trial of yohimbine. J Clin Psychiatry 1992;53:119–122.
Patterson WM. Fluoxetine-induced sexual dysfunction. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:71.
Teicher MH, Gold C, Cole JO. Emergence of intense suicidal preoccupation during fluoxetine treatment. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:207–210.
Beasley CM Jr, Dornseif BE, Bosomworth JC, Sayler ME, Rampey AH Jr, Heiligenstein JH, Thompson VL, Murphy DJ, Masica DN. Fluoxetine and suicide: a meta-analysis of controlled trials of treatment for depression. BMJ 1991;303:685–692.
Khan A, Khan S, Kolts R, Brown WA. Suicide rates in clinical trials of SSRI, other antidepressants, and placebo: analysis of FDA reports. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:790–792.
FDA: Labeling change request letter for antidepressants medications, 15 Oct. 2004. www.fda.gov/cder/drug/antidepressants/SSRIlabel Change.htm.
Valuck RJ, Libby AM, Sills MR, Giese AA, Allen RR. Antidepressant treatments and risk of suicide attempt by adolescents with major depressive disorder: a propensity-adjusted retrospective cohort study. CNS Drugs 2004;18:1119–1132.
Coupland NJ, Bell CJ, Potokar JP. Serotonin reuptake inhibitor withdrawal. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996;16:356–362.
Black K, Shea C, Dursun S, Kutcher S. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor discontinuation syndrome: proposed diagnostic criteria. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2000;25:255–261.
Doogan DP. Toleration and safety of sertraline: experience worldwide. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1991;6:47–56.
Dechant KL, Clissold SP. Paroxetine. Drugs 1991;41:225–253.
Gardiner HM, Freeman CP, Jesinger DK, Collins SA. Fluvoxamine: an open pilot study in moderately obese female patients suffering from atypical eating disorders and episodes of bingeing. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1993;17:301–305.
Woo MH, Smythe MA. Association of SIADH with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Ann Pharmacother 1997;31:108–110.
Smith D, Dempster C, Glanville J, Freemantle N, Anderson I. Efficacy and tolerability of venlafaxine compared with SSRI and other antidepressants: a meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2002;180:396–404.
Stern WC, Harto-Truax N, Bauer N. Efficacy of bupropion in tricyclic resistant or intolerant patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1983;44:148–152.
Cole JO, Schatzberg AF, Sniffin C, Zolner J, Cole JP. Trazodone in treatment-resistant depression an open study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1981;1:49–54.
Anton RF Jr, Burch EA Jr. Amoxapine versus amitriptyline combined with perphenazine in the treatment of psychotic depression. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:1203–1208.
Othmer E, Othmer SC, Stern WC, Van Wyck Fleet J. Long-term efficacy and safety of bupropion. J Clin Psychiatry 1983;44:153–156.
Rouillon F, Serrurier D, Miller HD, Gerard MJ. Prophylactic efficacy of maprotiline on unipolar depression relapse. J Clin Psychiatry 1991;52:423–431.
Lydiard RB, Gelenberg AJ. Amoxapine: an antidepressant with some neuroleptic properties? A review of its chemistry, animal pharmacology and toxicology, human pharmacology, and clinical efficacy. Pharmacotherapy 1981;1:163–178.
Wickersham RM, Novak KK, Schweain SL, editors, Drug Facts and Comparisons. St Louis, MO: Wolters Kluwer Health; 2004.
Wells BG, Gelenberg AJ. Chemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, ADR, and efficacy of the antidepressant maprotiline hydrochloride. Pharmacotherapy 1981;1:121–129.
Georgotas A, Forsell TL, Mann JJ, Kim M, Gershon S. Trazodone hydrochloride: a wide spectrum antidepressant with a unique pharmacological profile. A review of its neurochemical effects, pharmacology, clinical efficacy, and toxicology. Pharmacotherapy 1982;2:255–265.
Ellingrod VL, Perry PJ. Venlafaxine: A heterocyclic antidepressant. Am J Hosp Pharm 1995;51:3033–3046.
Fatemi SH, Stary JM, Hatsukami DK, Murphy SE. A double-blind placebo-controlled cross over trial of bupropion in smoking reduction in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2005;76:353–356.
Bielski RJ, Friedel DO. Prediction of tricyclic antidepressant response. A critical review. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976;33:1479–1489.
Morris JB, Beck AT. The efficacy of antidepressant drugs. A review of research (1958 to 1972). Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974;30:667–674.
Klerman GL, Cole JO. Clinical pharmacology of imipramine and related antidepressant compounds. Pharmacol Rev 1965;17:101–141.
Feinberg SS, Halbreich U. The association between the definition and reported prevalence of treatment-resistant depression. In: Halbreich U, Feinberg SS, editors, Psychosocial Aspects of Nonresponse to Antidepressant Drugs. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Press; 1986. p. 5–34.
Avery D, Lubrano A. Depression treated with imipramine and ECT: the De Carolis study reconsidered. Am J Psychiatry 1979;136:559–562.
Spiker DG, Dealy RS, Hanin I, Weiss JC, Kupfer DJ. Treating delusional depressives with amitriptyline. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;147:243–246.
Spiker DG, Weiss JC, Dealy RS, Griffin SJ, Hanin I, Neil JF, Perel JM, Rossi AJ, Soloff PH. The pharmacological treatment of delusional depression. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142:430–436.
Howarth BG, Grace MGA. Depression, drugs, and delusions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:1145–1147.
Prien RF, Kupfer DJ. Continuation drug therapy for major depressive episodes: How long should it be maintained? Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:18–23.
Prien RF, Klett CJ, Caffey EM. Lithium and imipramine in prevention of affective episodes: A comparison in recurrent affective illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1973;29:420–425.
Coppen A, Ghose K, Montgomery S, Rama Rao VA, Bailey J, Jorgensen A. Continuation therapy with amitriptyline in depression. Br J Psychiatry 1978;133:28–33.
Kocsis JH, Friedman RA, Markowitz JC, Leon AC, Miller NL, Gniwesch L, Parides M. Maintenance therapy for chronic depression: a controlled clinical trial of desipramine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:769–774.
Georgotas A, McCue RE, Cooper TB. A placebo-controlled comparison of nortriptyline and phenelzine in maintenance therapy of elderly depressed patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:783–786.
Quitkin FM, McGrath PJ, Stewart JW, Ocepek-Welikson K, Taylor BP, Nunes E, Deliyannides D, Agosti V, Donovan SJ, Petkova E, Klein DF. Chronological milestones to guide drug change. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:785–792.
Perry PJ, Zeilmann C, Arndt SV. Tricyclic antidepressant plasma concentrations: An estimate of their sensitivity and specificity as a predictor of response. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1994;14:230–240.
Devane CL, Jarecke CR. Cyclic antidepressants. In: Evans WE, Schentag JJ, Jusko WJ, editors. Applied Pharmacokinetics: Principles of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. Vancouver, WA: Applied Therapeutics; 1992. p. 1–47.
Richelson E, Nelson A. Antagonism by antidepressants of neurotransmitter receptors of normal human brain in vitro. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1984;230:94–102.
Glassman AH, Roose SP, Bigger JT. The safety of tricyclic antidepressants in cardiac patients. Risk-benefit reconsidered. JAMA 1993;269:2673–2675.
Liebowitz MR, Quitkin FM, Stewart JW, McGrath PJ, Harrison W, Rabkin J, Tricamo E, Markowitz JS, Klein DF. Phenelzine versus imipramine in atypical depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:669–677.
McGrath PJ, Stewart JW, Nunes EV, Ocepek-Welikson K, Rabkin JG, Quitkin FM, Klein DF. A double-blind crossover trial of imipramine and phenelzine for outpatients with treatment-refractory depression. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:118–123.
Anonymous: Emsam [selegiline] Product Information. 2006.
Sheehan DV, Claycomb JB, Kauretas N. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors: prescription and patient management. Int J Psychiatry Med 1980-81;10:99–121.
Stewart JW, Harrison W, Quitkin F, Liebowitz MR. Phenelzine-induced pyridoxine deficiency. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1984; 4:225–226.
Grade C, Redford B, Chrostowski J, Toussaint L, Blackwell B, Methylphenidate in early poststroke recovery: a double blind placebo controlled study. Arch Physical Med Rehab 1998;79:1047–1050.
Satel SL, Nelson JC. Stimulants in the treatment of depression: a critical overview. J Clin Psychiatry 1989;50:241–249.
Hirschfeld RM, Bowden CL, Gitlin MJ, Keck PE, Suppes T, Thase ME, Wagner KD, Perlis RH. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with bipolar disorder (revision). Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:1–50.
Price LH, Heninger GR. Lithium in the treatment of mood disorders. NEJM 1994;331:591–598.
Goodwin FK, Murphy DL, Bunney WE Jr. Lithium carbonate treatment in depression and mania: a longitudinal double-blind study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1969;21:486–496.
Stokes PE, Shamoian CA, Stoll PM, Patton MJ. Efficacy of lithium as acute treatment of manic-depressive illness. Lancet 1971; 1:1319–1325.
Schou M, Juel-Nielson N, Stromgren E, Voldby H. The treatment of manic psychoses by administration of lithium salts. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1954;17:250–260.
Bowden CL, Brugger AM, Swann AC, Calabrese JR, Janicak PG, Petty F, Dilsaver SC, Davis JM, Rush AJ, Small JG, Efficacy of divalproex vs lithium and placebo in the treatment of mania. JAMA 1994;271:918–924.
Mirchandani IC, Young RC. Management of mania in the elderly: an update. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1993;5:67–77.
Shopsin B, Gershon S, Thompson H, Collins P. Psychoactive drugs in mania. A controlled comparison of lithium carbonate, chlorpromazine, and haloperidol. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1975;32:34–42.
Berk M, Ichim L, Brook S. Olanzapine compared to lithium in mania: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1999;14:339–343.
Bowden CL, Grunze H, Mullen J, Brecher M, Paulsson B, Jones M, Vågerö M, Svensson K. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled efficacy and safety study of quetiapine or lithium as monotherapy for mania in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66:111–121.
Segal J, Berk M, Brook S. Risperidone compared with both lithium and haloperidol in mania: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Clin Neuropharmacol 1998;21:176–180.
Sachs GS, Grossman F, Ghaemi SN, Okamoto A, Bowden CL. Combination of a mood stabilizer with risperidone or haloperidol for treatment of acute mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of efficacy and safety. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159:1146–1154.
Sachs G, Chengappa KN, Suppes T, Mullen JA, Brecher M, Devine NA, Sweitzer DE. Quetiapine with lithium or divalproex for the treatment of bipolar mania: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study. Bipolar Disord 2004;6:213–223.
Lenox RH, Newhouse PA, Creelman WL, Whitaker TM. Adjunctive treatment of manic agitation with lorazepam versus haloperidol: a double-blind study. J Clin Psychiatry 1992;53:47–52.
Mendels J, Ramsey TA, Dyson WL, Frazer A. Lithium as an antidepressant. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979;36:845–846.
Perugi G, Micheli C, Akiskal HS, Madaro D, Socci C, Quilici C, Musetti L. Polarity of the first episode, clinical characteristics, and course of manic depressive illness: a systematic retrospective investigation of 320 bipolar I patients. Compr Psychiatry 2000; 41:13–18.
Abou-Saleh MT, Coppen. Who responds to prophylactic lithium? J Affect Disord 1986;10:115–125.
Faedda GL, Tondo L, Baldessarini RJ, Suppes T, Tohen M. Outcome after rapid versus gradual discontinuation of lithium in bipolar disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:448–455.
Greil W, Schmidt ST. Lithium withdrawal reactions. In Birch NJ, editor, Lithium: Inorganic Pharmacology and Psychiatric Use. Washington, DC, IRL Press; 1998.
Solomon DA, Bauer MS. Continuation and maintenance pharmacotherapy for unipolar and bipolar mood disorders. Psychiatric Clin North Am 1993;16:515–540.
Burrows GD. Long-term clinical management of depressive disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1992;53:32–35.
Davis JM, Janicak PG, Hogan DM. Mood stabilizers in the prevention of recurrent affective disorders: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1999;100:406–417.
Post RM, Denicoff KD, Leverich GS, Altshuler LL, Frye MA, Suppes TM, Rush AJ, Keck PE Jr, McElroy SL, Luckenbaugh DA, Pollio C, Kupka R, Nolen WA. Morbity in 258 bipolar outpatients followed for one year with daily prospective ratings on the NIMH-Life Chart Method. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64:680–690.
Brodersen A, Licht RW, Vestergaard P, Olesen AV, Mortensen PB. Sixteen-year mortality in patients with affective disorder commended on lithium Br J Psychiatry 2000;176:429–433.
Goodwin FK, Fireman B, Simon GE, Hunkeler EM, Lee J, Revicki D. Suicide risk in bipolar disorder during treatment with lithium and divalproex. JAMA 2003;290:1467–1473.
Lyskowski J, Nasrallah HA. Slow-release lithium: A review and a comparative study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1981;1:406–408.
Kirkwood CK, Wilson SK, Hayes PE, Barr WH, Sarkar MA, Ettigi PG. Single-dose bioavailability of two extended-release lithium carbonate products. Am J Hosp Pharm 1994;51:486–489.
Vestergaard P, Hansen HE, Assessment of renal concentrating ability in lithium-treated patients. Comparison of long-term dehydration with administration of a vasopressin analogue. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1980;62:152–156.
El-Mallakh RS. Acute lithium neurotoxicity. Psychiatric Dev 1986;4:311–328.
DasGupta K, Jefferson JW. The use of lithium in the medically ill. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1990;12:83–97.
Gelenberg AJ, Jefferson JW. Lithium tremor. J Clin Psychiatry 1995;56:283–287.
Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 1976;16:31–47.
Robinson JD, Lupkiewicz SM, Palenik L, Lopez LM, Ariet M. Determination of ideal body weight for drug dosage calculations. Am J Hosp Pharm 1983;40:1016–1019.
Vestergaard P. Treatment and prevention of mania: a Scandinavian perspective. Neuropsychopharmacol 1992;7:249–259.
Hansen HE, Amdisen A. Lithium intoxication (report of 23 cases and review of 100 cases from the literature). Q J Med 1978;47:123–144.
Cohen LS, Friedman JM, Jefferson JW, Johnson EM, Weiner ML. A reevaluation of risk of in utero exposure to lithium. JAMA 1994; 271:146–150.
Committee on Drugs, American Academy of Pediatrics. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals in human milk. Pediatrics 1994; 93:137–150.
Klasco RK, editor. DRUGDEX® System. Thomson MICROMEDEX, Greenwood Village, Colorado; 2004.
Macritchie K, Geddes JR, Scott J, Haslam D, de Lima M, Goodwin G. Valproate for acute mood episodes in bipolar disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003;1:CD004052.
Tohen M, Baker RW, Altshuler LL, Zarate CA, Suppes T, Ketter TA, Milton DR, Risser R, Gilmore JA, Breier A, Tollefson GA. Olanzapine versus divalproex in the treatment of acute mania. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:1011–1017.
McElroy SL, Keck PE. Treatment guidelines for valproate in bipolar and schizoaffective disorders. Can J Psychiatry 1993;38:62–66.
Bowden CL, Janicak PG, Orsulak P, Swann AC, Davis JM, Calabrese JR, Goodnick P, Small JG, Rush AJ, Kimmel SE, Risch SC, Morris DD. Relation of serum valproate concentration to response in mania. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:765–770.
Wilder BJ. Pharmacokinetics of valproate and carbamazepine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992;2:64–68.
Pugh CB and Garnett WR. Current issues in the treatment of epilepsy. Clin Pharm 1991;10:335–358.
Dutta S, Zhang Y. Bioavailability of divalproex extended-release formulation relative to the divalproex delayed-release formulation. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2004;25:345–352.
Anonymous: Depakote [valproate] Product Information. 2003.
Anonymous. Sodium valproate and neural tube defects. Lancet 1982;2:1282–1283.
Briggs GG, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ. A Reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk: Drugs in Preganancy and Lactation, 4th Ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1994.
Hale TW. Medications and Mother’s Milk. 11th ed. Amarillo, TX: Pharmasoft Medical Publishing; 2004.
Post RM. Time course of clinical effects of carbamazepine: implications for mechanisms of action. J Clin Psychiatry 1988;49:35–46.
Lerer B, Moore N, Meyendorff E, Cho SR, Gershon S. Carbamazepine versus lithium in mania: a double-blind study. J Clin Psychiatry 1987;48:89–93.
Small JG, Klapper MH, Milstein V, Kellams JJ, Miller MJ, Marhenke JD, Small IF. Carbamazepine compared with lithium in the treatment of mania. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:915–921.
Grossi E, Sacchetti E, Vita A. Carbamazepine vs chlorpromazine in mania: A double-blind trial. In: Emrich HM, Okuma T, Muller AA, editors. Anticonvulsants in Affective Disorders. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1986. p. 177–187.
Okuma T, Inanaga K, Otsuki S, Sarai K, Takahashi R, Hazama H, Mori A, Watanabe M. Comparison of the antimanic efficacy of carbamazepine and chlorpromazine: A double-blind controlled study. Psychopharmacology 1979;66:211–217.
Vasudev K, Goswani U, Kohli K. Carbamazepine and valproate monotherapy: feasibility, relative safety and efficacy, and therapeutic drug monitoring in manic disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 2000;150:15–23.
Emilien G, Maloteaux JM, Seghers A, Charles G. Lithium compared to valproic acid and carbamazepine in the treatment of mania: a statistical metal-analysis. European Neuropsychopharmacol 1996;6:245–252.
Stromgren LS, Boller S. Carbamazepine in treatment and prophylaxis of manic-depressive disorder. Psychiatric Develop 1985;4:349–367.
Greil W, Ludwig-Mayerhofer W, Erazo N, Schöchlin C, Schmidt S, Engel RR, Czernik A, Giedke H, Müller-Oerlinghausen B, Osterheider M, Rudolf GA, Sauer H, Tegeler J, Wetterling T. Lithium versus carbamazepine in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorders—a randomized study. J Affect Disord 1997;43:151–161.
Denicoff KD, Smith-Jackson EE, Disney ER, Ali SO, Leverich GS, Post RM. Comparative prophylactic efficacy of lithium, carbamazepine, and the combination in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58:470–478.
Bertilsson L, Tomson T. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacological effects of carbamazepine and carbamazepine-10-11-epoxide. Clin Pharmacokinet 1986;11:177–198.
Kudriakova TB, Sirota LA, Rozova GI, Gorkov VA. Autoinduction and steady-state pharmacokinetics of carbamazepine and its major metabolite. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1992;33:611–615.
Neppe VM, Tucker GJ, Wilensky AJ. Introduction: Fundamentals of carbamazepine use in neuropsychiatry. J Clin Psychiatry 1988; 49:4–6.
Anonymous: Tegretol [carbamazepine] Product Information. 2002.
Ballenger JC, Post RM. Carbamazepine in manic-depressive illness: a new treatment. Am J Psychiatry 1980;137:782–790.
Livingston S, Pauli L, Berman W. Carbamazepine in epilepsy. Nine year follow-up with special emphasis on untoward reactions. Dis Nerv Syst 1974;35:103–107.
Denicoff KD, Meglathery SB, Post RM, Tandeciarz SI. Efficacy of carbamazepine compared with other agents: A clinical practice survey. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:70–76.
Isojarvi JIT, Pakarinen AJ, Myllyla VV. Thyroid function in epileptic patients treated with carbamazepine. Arch Neurol 1989; 46:1175–1178.
Sobotka JL, Alexander B, Cook BL. A review of carbamazepine's hematologic reactions and moniroting recommendations. DICP Ann Pharmacother 1990;24:1214–1219.
Soffer EE, Taylor RJ, Bertram PD, Haggitt RC, Levinson MJ. Carbamazepine-induced liver injury. South Med J 1983;76:681–683.
Jones KL, Lacro RV, Johnson KA, Adams J. Pattern of malformations in the children of women treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. N Eng J Med 1989;320:1661–1666.
Scolnik D, Nulman I, Rovet J, Gladstone D, Czuchta D, Gardner HA, Gladstone R, Ashby P, Weksberg R, Einarson T. Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to phenytoin and carbamazepine monotherapy. JAMA 1994;271:767–770.
Vajda FJ, O'Brien TJ, Hitchcock A, Graham J, Lander C. The Australian registry of anti-epileptic drugs in pregnancy: experience after 30 months. J Clin Neuroscience 2003;10:543–549.
Inoue H, Unno N. Excretion of verapamil in human milk. BMJ 1984;288:644–645.
Goldsmith DR, Wagstaff AJ, Ibbotson T, Perry CM. Lamotrigine: a review of its use in bipolar disorder. Drugs 2003;63:2029–2050.
Calabrese JR, Bowden CL, Sachs GS, Ascher JA, Monaghan E, Rudd GD. A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine in outpatients with bipolar I depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60:79–88.
Frye MA, Ketter TA, Kimbrell TA, Dunn RT, Speer AM, Osuch EA, Luckenbaugh DA, Cora-Ocatelli G, Leverich GS, Post RM. A placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine and gabapentin monotherapy in refractory mood disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 20:607–614.
Ichim L, Berk M, Brook S. Lamotrigine compared with lithium in mania: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2000;12:5–10.
Bowden CL, Calabrese JR, Sachs G, Yatham LN, Asghar SA, Hompland M, Montgomery P, Earl N, Smoot TM, DeVeaugh-Geiss J; Lamictal 606 Study Group. A placebo-controlled 18-month trial of lamotrigine and lithium maintenance treatment in recently manic or hypomanic patients with bipolar I disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:392–400.
Calabrese JR, Bowden CL, Sachs G, Yatham LN, Behnke K, Mehtonen OP, Montgomery P, Ascher J, Paska W, Earl N, DeVeaugh-Geiss J; Lamictal 605 Study Group. A placebo-controlled 18-month trial of lamotrigine and lithium maintenance treatment in recently depressed patients with bipolar I disorder. J Clin Psychaitry 2003;64:1013–1024.
Calabrese JR, Suppes T, Bowden CL, Sachs GS, Swann AC, McElroy SL, Kusumakar V, Ascher JA, Earl NL, Greene PL, Monaghan ET. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, prophylaxis study of lamotrigine in rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61:841–850.
Anonymous: Lamictal [lamotrigine] Product Information. 2003.
Emrich HM. Studies with oxcarbazepine (Trileptal) in acute mania. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1990;5:83–88.
Reinstein MJ, Sonnenberg JG, Hedberg TG, Jones LE, Reyngold P. Oxcarbazepine vs. divalproex sodium for the continuing treatment of mania. Clin Drug Invest 2003;23:671–677.
Keck PE, McElroy SL, Nemeroff CB. Anticonvulsants in the treatment of bipolar disorder. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992; 4:395–405.
Dubovsky SL. Generalized anxiety disorder: new concepts and psychopharmacologic therapies. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:3–10.
Perry PJ, Garvey M, Noyes R. Benzodiazepine treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. In: Noyes R, Roth M, Burrows GD, editors. Handbook of anxiety. Treatment of anxiety. Vol 4. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1990. p. 111–124.
Shapiro AK, Struening EL, Shapiro E, Milcarek BI. Diazepam: how much better than placebo? J Psychiatr Res 1982;17:51–73.
Zung WW. Effect of clorazepate on depressed mood in anxious patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1987;48:13–14.
Kapczinski F, Lima MS, Souza JS, Schmitt R. Antidepressants for generalized anxiety disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; CD003592.
Rickels K, Case WG, Downing RW, Winokur A. Long-term diazepam therapy and clinical outcome. JAMA 1983;250:767–771.
Fricchione G. Clinical practice. Generalized anxiety disorder. N Engl J Med 2004;351:675–682.
Gliatto MF. Generalized anxiety disorder. Am Fam Physician 2000;62:1591–1600, 1602.
Andersch S, Rosenberg NK, Kullingsjö H, Ottosson JO, Bech P, Bruun-Hansen J, Hanson L, Lorentzen K, Mellergård M, Rasmussen S. Efficacy and safety of alprazolam, imipramine and placebo in treating panic disorder. A Scandinavian multicenter study. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1991;365:18–27.
Ballenger JC, Burrows GD, DuPont RL Jr, Lesser IM, Noyes R Jr, Pecknold JC, Rifkin A, Swinson RP. Alprazolam in panic disorder and agoraphobia: results from a multicenter trial. I. Efficacy in short-term treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:413–422.
Chouinard G, Annable L, Fontaine R, Solyom L. Alprazolam in the treatment of generalized anxiety and panic disorders. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychopharmacology 1982;77:229–233.
Dunner DL, Ishiki D, Avery DH, Wilson LG, Hyde TS. Effect of alprazolam and diazepam on anxiety and panic attacks in panic disorder: a controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;47:458–460.
Gould RA, Otto MW, Pollack MH. A meta-analysis of treatment outcome for panic disorder. Clinical Psychology Review 1995;15:819–844.
Noyes R, Anderson D, Clancy J. Diazepam and propranolol in panic disorder and agoraphobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:287–292.
Rizley R, Kahn RJ, McNair DM, Frankenthaler LM. A comparison of alprazolam and imipramine in the treatment of agoraphobia and panic disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 1986;22:167–172.
Sheehan DV. The management of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2002;63:17–21.
Sheehan DV, Coleman JH, Greenblatt DJ, Jones KJ, Levine PH, Orsulak PJ, Peterson M, Schildkraut JJ, Uzogara E, Watkins D. Some biochemical correlates of panic attacks with agoraphobia and their response to a new treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1984;4:66–75.
Sheehan DV, Raj AB, Harnett-Sheehan K, Soto S, Knapp E. The relative efficacy of high-dose buspirone and alprazolam in the treatment of panic disorder: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993;88:1–11.
Sheehan DV. Is buspirone effective in the treatment of panic disorder? Presented at the New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit annual meeting, Key Biscayne, Florida, May 28 1987.
Tesar GE, Rosenbaum JF, Pollack MH, Herman JB, Sachs GS, Mahoney EM, Cohen LS, McNamara M, Goldstein S. Clonazepam versus alprazolam in the treatment of panic disorder: interim analysis of data from a prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 1987;48:16–19.
Uhlenhuth EH, Matuzas W, Glass RM, Easton C. Response of panic disorder to fixed doses of alprazolam or imipramine. J Affect Disord 1989; 17:261–270.
Sheehan DV, Raj BA. Benzodiazepine treatment of panic disorder, in: Noyes R, Roth M, Burrows G, editors, Handbook of Anxiety, Vol. 4, Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1990. p. 169–206.
Munjack DJ, Crocker B, Cabe D, Brown R, Usigli R, Zulueta A, McManus M, McDowell D, Palmer R, Leonard M. Alprazolam, propranolol, and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia with panic attacks. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1989;9:22–27.
van Balkom AJ, Bakker A, Spinhoven P, Blaauw BM, Smeenk S, Ruesink B. A meta-analysis of the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: a comparison of psychopharmacological, cognitive-behavioral, and combination treatments. J Nerv Ment Dis 1997;185:510–516.
Pollack MH, Simon NM, Worthington JJ, Doyle AL, Peters P, Toshkov F, Otto MW. Combined paroxetine and clonazepam treatment strategies compared to paroxetine monotherapy for panic disorder. J Psychopharmacol 2003;17:276–282.
Goddard AW, Brouette T, Almai A, Jetty P, Woods SW, Charney D. Early coadministration of clonazepam with sertraline for panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:681–686.
Pollack MH. Long-term management of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:11–13.
Bakker A, van Balkom AJ, Spinhoven P, Blaauw BM, van Dyck R. Follow-up on the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: a quantitative review. J Nerv Ment Dis 1998;186:414–419.
Dommisse CS, Hayes PE. Current concepts in clinical therapeutics: anxiety disorders, part 2. Clin Pharm 1987;6:196–215.
Jefferson JW. Social phobia: a pharmacologic treatment overview. J Clin Psychiatry 1995;56:18–24.
Gelernter CS, Uhde TW, Cimbolic P, Arnkoff DB, Vittone BJ, Tancer ME, Bartko JJ. Cognitive-behavioral and pharmacological treatments of social phobia. A controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:938–945.
Davidson JR, Potts N, Richichi E, Krishnan R, Ford SM, Smith R, Wilson WH. Treatment of social phobia with clonazepam and placebo. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993;13:423–428.
Seedat S, Stein MB. Double-blind, placebo-controlled assessment of combined clonazepam with paroxetine compared with paroxetine monotherapy for generalized social anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65:244–248.
Hollander E, Kaplan A, Stahl SM. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of clonazepam in obsessive-compulsive disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry 2003;4:30–34.
Stein DJ, Hollander E, Mullen LS, Decaria CM, Liebowitz MR. Comparison of clomipramine, alprazolam, and placebo in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Human Psychopharmacology 1992;7:389–395.
Braun P, Greenberg D, Dasberg H, Lerer B. Core symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder unimproved by alprazolam treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:236–238.
Hollister LE. Pharmacotherapeutic considerations in anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;47:33–36.
Chouinard G, Lefko-Singh K, Teboul E. Metabolism of anxiolytics and hypnotics: benzodiazepines, buspirone, zoplicone, and zolpidem. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1999;19:533–552.
Hoehn-Saric R, McLeod DR, Zimmerli WD. Differential effects of alprazolam and imipramine in generalized anxiety disorder: somatic versus psychic symptoms. J Clin Psychiatry 1988;49:293–301.
Bourin M, Lambert O. Pharmacotherapy of anxious disorders. Hum Psychopharmacol 2002;17:383–400.
Lader M, Scotto JC. A multicentre double-blind comparison of hydroxyzine, buspirone and placebo in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1998;139:402–406.
Mahe V, Balogh A. Long-term pharmacological treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2000;15:99–105.
Rouillon F. Long term therapy of generalized anxiety disorder. Eur Psychiatry 2004;19:96–101.
Spier SA, Tesar GE, Rosenbaum JF, Woods SW. Treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia with clonazepam. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;47:238–242.
Shebak S, Cameron A, Levander S. Clonazepam and imipramine in the treatment of panic attacks: a double-blind comparison of efficacy and side effects. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:4–17.
Greenblatt DJ, Shader RI, Abernathy DR. Current status of benzodiazepines (first of two parts). N Engl J Med 1983;309:354–358.
Greenblatt DJ. Pharmacokinetic comparisons. Psychosomatics 1980;21:9–14.
Greenblatt DJ. Benzodiazepines 1980: current update. Psychosomatics 1980;21:26–31.
Greenblatt DJ, Shader RI. Prazepam and lorazepam, two new benzodiazepines. N Engl J Med 1978;299:1342–1344.
Reidenberg MM, Levy M, Warner H, Coutinho CB, Schwartz MA, Yu G, Cheripko J. Relationship between diazepam dose, plasma level, age, and central nervous system depression. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1978;23:371–374.
Thompson TL, Moran MG, Nies AS. Drug therapy: psychotropic drug use in the elderly (first of two parts). N Engl J Med 1983; 308:134–138.
Cole JO, Haskell DS, Orzack MH. Problems with benzodiazepines: an assessment of the available evidence. McLean Hosp J 1981; 6:46–74.
Busto U, Sellers EM, Naranjo CA, Cappell H, Sanchez-Craig M, Sykora K. Withdrawal reactions after long-term therapeutic use of benzodiazepines. N Engl J Med 1986;315:854–859.
Perry PJ, Alexander B. Sedative/hypnotic dependence: patient stabilization, tolerance testing, and withdrawal. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1986;20:532–537.
Moller HJ. Effectiveness and safety of benzodiazepines. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999;19:2–11.
Tyrer P. Dependence as a limiting factor in the clinical use of minor tranquillizers. Pharmacol Ther 1988;36:173–188.
Lucki I, Rickels K, Geller AM. Psychomotor performance following the long-term use of benzodiazepines. Psychopharmacol Bull 1985;21:93–96.
Bauer RL. Traffic accidents and minor tranquilizers: a review. Public Health Rep 1984;99:572–574.
Thomas RE. Benzodiazepine use and motor vehicle accidents. Systematic review of reported association. Can Fam Physician 1998; 44:799–808.
Verster JC, Volkerts ER. Clinical pharmacology, clinical efficacy, and behavioral toxicity of alprazolam: a review of the literature. CNS Drug Rev 2004;10:45–76.
Katcher BS. General care: anxiety and insomnia. In: Koda-Kimble MA, Katcher BS, Young LY, editors. Applied therapeutics for clinical pharmacists. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Applied Therapeutics; 1978. p. 71–85.
Gelenberg AJ. Amnesia and benzodiazepines. Bio Ther Psychiatry 1985;8:27.
Salzman C. Behavioral side effects of benzodiazepines, in: Kane J, Lieberman J, editors, ADR of Psychotropic Drugs, New York: Guilford Press; 1992. p. 139–152.
Pollack MH, Zaninelli R, Goddard A, McCafferty JP, Bellew KM, Burnham DB, Iyengar MK. Paroxetine in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2001;62:350–357.
Rickels K, Zaninelli R, McCafferty J, Bellew K, Iyengar M, Sheehan D. Paroxetine treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:749–756.
Rocca P, Fonzo V, Scotta M, Zanalda E, Ravizza L. Paroxetine efficacy in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997;95:444–450.
Stocchi F, Nordera G, Jokinen RH, Lepola UM, Hewett K, Bryson H, Iyengar MK; Paroxetine Generalized Anxiety Disorder Study Team. Efficacy and tolerability of paroxetine for the long-term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64:250–258.
Allgulander C, Dahl AA, Austin C, Morris PL, Sogaard JA, Fayyad R, Kutcher SP, Clary CM. Efficacy of sertraline in a 12-week trial for generalized anxiety disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:1642–1649.
Davidson JR, Bose A, Korotzer A, Zheng H. Escitalopram in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: double-blind, placebo controlled, flexible-dose study. Depress Anxiety 2004;19:234–240.
Montgomery SA, Sheehan DV, Meoni P, Haudiquet V, Hackett D. Characterization of the longitudinal course of improvement in generalized anxiety disorder during long-term treatment with venlafaxine XR. J Psychiatr Res 2002;36:209–217.
Katz IR, Reynolds CF 3rd, Alexopoulos GS, Hackett D. Venlafaxine ER as a treatment for generalized anxiety disorder in older adults: pooled analysis of five randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002;50:18–25.
Otto MW, Tuby KS, Gould RA, McLean RY, Pollack MH. An effect-size analysis of the relative efficacy and tolerability of serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors for panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1989–1992.
Ballenger JC, Wheadon DE, Steiner M, Bushnell W, Gergel IP. Double-blind, fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study of paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:36–42.
Lecrubier Y, Bakker A, Dunbar G, Judge R. A comparison of paroxetine, clomipramine and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. Collaborative Paroxetine Panic Study Investigators. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997;95:145–152.
Oehrberg S, Christiansen PE, Behnke K, Borup AL, Severin B, Soegaard J, Calberg H, Judge R, Ohrstrom JK, Manniche PM. Paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Psychiatry 1995;167:374–379.
Michelson D, Lydiard RB, Pollack MH, Tamura RN, Hoog SL, Tepner R, Demitrack MA, Tollefson GD. Outcome assessment and clinical improvement in panic disorder: evidence from a randomized controlled trial of fluoxetine and placebo. The Fluoxetine Panic Disorder Study Group. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:1570–1577.
Rapaport MH, Wolkow R, Rubin A, Hackett E, Pollack M, Ota KY. Sertraline treatment of panic disorder: results of a long-term study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2001;104:239–298.
Leinonen E, Lepola U, Koponen H, Turtonen J, Wade A, Lehto H. Citalopram controls phobic symptoms in patients with panic disorder: randomized controlled trial. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2000;25:25–32.
Lepola UM, Wade AG, Leinonen EV, Koponen HJ, Frazer J, Sjödin I, Penttinen JT, Pedersen T, Lehto HJ. A controlled, prospective, 1-year trial of citalopram in the treatment of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59:528–534.
Wade AG, Lepola U, Koponen HJ, Pedersen V, Pedersen T. The effect of citalopram in panic disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1997;170:549–553.
Pollack MH, Worthington JJ 3rd, Otto MW, Maki KM, Smoller JW, Manfro GG, Rudolph R, Rosenbaum JF. Venlafaxine for panic disorder: results from a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychopharmacol Bull 1996;32:667–670.
Baldwin D, Bobes J, Stein DJ, Scharwächter I, Faure M. Paroxetine in social phobia/social anxiety disorder. Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Paroxetine Study Group. Br J Psychiatry 1999;175:120–126.
Stein MB, Liebowitz MR, Lydiard RB, Pitts CD, Bushnell W, Gergel I. Paroxetine treatment of generalized social phobia (social anxiety disorder): a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;280:708–713.
Lader M, Stender K, Bürger V, Nil R. Efficacy and tolerability of escitalopram in 12- and 24-week treatment of social anxiety disorder: randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose study. Depress Anxiety 2004;19:241–248.
Kasper S, Stein DJ, Loft H, Nil R. Escitalopram in the treatment of social anxiety disorder: randomised, placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage study. Br J Psychiatry 2005;186:222–226.
Stein MB, Fyer AJ, Davidson JR, Pollack MH, Wiita B. Fluvoxamine treatment of social phobia (social anxiety disorder): a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:756–760.
van Vliet IM, den Boer JA, Westenberg HG. Psychopharmacological treatment of social phobia; a double blind placebo controlled study with fluvoxamine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1994;115:128–134.
Allgulander C, Mangano R, Zhang J, Dahl AA, Lepola U, Sjödin I, Emilien G; SAD 388 Study Group. Efficacy of Venlafaxine ER in patients with social anxiety disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group comparison with paroxetine. Hum Psychopharmacol 2004;19:387–396.
Sheehan DV, Davidson J, Manschreck T, Van Wyck Fleet J. Lack of efficacy of a new antidepressant (bupropion) in the treatment of panic disorder with phobias. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1983;3:28–31.
Den Boer JA, Westenberg GM. Effect of a serotonin and noradrenaline uptake inhibitor in panic disorder: a double-blind comparative study with fluvoxamine and maprotiline. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1988;3:59–74.
Brady K, Pearlstein T, Asnis GM, Baker D, Rothbaum B, Sikes CR, Farfel GM. Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000;283:1837–1844.
Davidson J, Pearlstein T, Londborg P, Brady KT, Rothbaum B, Bell J, Maddock R, Hegel MT, Farfel G. Efficacy of sertraline in preventing relapse of posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a 28-week double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1974–1981.
Zohar J, Amital D, Miodownik C, Kotler M, Bleich A, Lane RM, Austin C. Double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study of sertraline in military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;22:190–195.
Marshall RD, Beebe KL, Oldham M, Zaninelli R. Efficacy and safety of paroxetine treatment for chronic PTSD: a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1982–1988.
Tucker P, Zaninelli R, Yehuda R, Ruggiero L, Dillingham K, Pitts CD. Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2001;62:860–868.
Schoenfeld FB, Marmar CR, Neylan TC. Current concepts in pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Serv 2004;55:519–531.
van der Kolk BA, Dreyfuss D, Michaels M, Shera D, Berkowitz R, Fisler R, Saxe G. Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:517–522.
Martenyi F, Brown EB, Zhang H, Koke SC, Prakash A. Fluoxetine v. placebo in prevention of relapse in post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2002;181:315–320.
Martenyi F, Brown EB, Zhang H, Prakash A, Koke SC. Fluoxetine versus placebo in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2002;63:199–206.
Charney DS, Woods SW, Goodman WK, Rifkin B, Kinch M, Aiken B, Quadrino LM, Heninger GR. Drug treatment of panic disorder: the comparative efficacy of imipramine, alprazolam, and trazodone. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;47:580–586.
Deltito JA, Argyle N, Klerman GL. Patients with panic disorder unaccompanied by depression improve with alprazolam and imipramine treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1991;52:121–127.
Gloger S, Grunhaus L, Gladic D, O'Ryan F, Cohen L, Codner S. Panic attacks and agoraphobia: low dose clomipramine treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1989;9:28–32.
Mavissakalian M, Perel J, Bowler K, Dealy R. Trazodone in the treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia with panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 1987;144:785–787.
Munjack DJ, Rebal R, Shaner R, Staples F, Braun R, Leonard M. Imipramine versus propranolol for the treatment of panic attacks: a pilot study. Compr Psychiatry 1985;26:80–89.
Sheehan DV, Ballenger J, Jacobsen G. Treatment of endogenous anxiety with phobic, hysterical, and hypochondriacal symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980;37:51–59.
Zitrin CM, Klein DF, Woerner MG, Ross DC. Treatment of phobia. I. Comparison of imipramine hydrochloride and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1983;40:125–138.
Allsopp LF, Cooper GL, Poole PH. Clomipramine and diazepam in the treatment of agoraphobia and social phobia in general practice. Curr Med Res Opin 1984;9:64–70.
Gringras M. An uncontrolled trial of clomipramine (Anafranil) in the treatment of phobic and obsessional states in general practice. J Int Med Res 1977;5:111–115.
Versiani M, Mundim FD, Nardi AE, Liebowitz MR. Tranylcypromine in social phobia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1988;8:279–283.
Davidson J, Kudler H, Smith R, Mahorney SL, Lipper S, Hammett E, Saunders WB, Cavenar JO Jr. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:259–266.
Frank JB, Kosten TR, Giller EL Jr, Dan E. A randomized clinical trial of phenelzine and imipramine for posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:1289–1291.
Reist C, Kauffmann CD, Haier RJ, Sangdahl C, DeMet EM, Chicz-DeMet A, Nelson JN. A controlled trial of desipramine in 18 men with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146:513–516.
Noyes R Jr, Garvey MJ, Cook BL, Samuelson L. Problems with tricyclic antidepressant use in patients with panic disorder or agoraphobia: results of a naturalistic follow-up study. J Clin Psychiatry 1989;50:163–169.
Ballenger JC. Pharmacotherapy of the panic disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1986;6:27–32.
Jann MW, Kurtz NM. Treatment of panic and phobic disorders. Clin Pharm 1987;6:947–962.
Solyom L, Heseltine GF, McClure DJ, Solyom C, Ledwidge B, Steinberg G. Behaviour therapy versus drug therapy in the treatment of phobic neurosis. Can Psychiatr Assoc J 1973;18:25–32.
Solyom L, Heseltine GR, McClure DJ, Ledwidge B, Kenny F. A comparative study of aversion relief and systematic desensitization in the treatment of phobias. Br J Psychiatry 1971;119:299–303.
Tyrer P, Candy J, Kelly D. A study of the clinical effects of phenelzine and placebo in the treatment of phobic anxiety. Psychopharmacologia 1973;32:237–254.
Liebowitz MR, Schneier F, Campeas R, Hollander E, Hatterer J, Fyer A, Gorman J, Papp L, Davies S, Gully R. Phenelzine vs atenolol in social phobia. A placebo-controlled comparison. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:290–300.
Versiani M, Nardi AE, Mundim FD, Alves AB, Liebowitz MR, Amrein R. Pharmacotherapy of social phobia. A controlled study with moclobemide and phenelzine. Br J Psychiatry 1992;161:353–360.
Heimberg RG, Liebowitz MR, Hope DA, Schneier FR, Holt CS, Welkowitz LA, Juster HR, Campeas R, Bruch MA, Cloitre M, Fallon B, Klein DF. Cognitive behavioral group therapy vs phenelzine therapy for social phobia: 12-week outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:1133–1141.
Shestatzky M, Greenberg D, Lerer B. A controlled trial of phenelzine in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 1988;24:149–155.
Pecknold JC, Swinson RP, Kuch K, Lewis CP. Alprazolam in panic disorder and agoraphobia: results from a multicenter trial. III. Discontinuation effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:429–436.
Coryell W, Noyes R, Clancy J. Panic disorder and primary unipolar depression: a comparison of background and outcome. J Affect Disord 1983;5:311–317.
Goldberg HL. Buspirone hydrochloride: a unique new anxiolytic agent. Pharmacotherapy 1984;4:314–324.
Dommisse CS, DeVane CL. Buspirone: a new type of anxiolytic. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1985;19:624–628.
Pohl R, Balon R, Yeragani VK, Gershon S. Serotonergic anxiolytics in the treatment of panic disorder: a controlled study with buspirone. Psychopathology 1989;2:60–67.
Newton RE, Casten GP, Alms DR, Benes CO, Marunycz JD. The side effect profile of buspirone in comparison to active controls and placebo. J Clin Psychiatry 1982;43:100–102.
Seppälä T, Aranko K, Mattila MJ, Shrotriya RC. Effects of alcohol on buspirone and lorazepam actions. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1982;32:201–207.
Moskorvitz H, Smiley A. Effects of chronically administered buspirone and diazepam on driving-related skills performance. J Clin Psychiatry 1982;43:45–56.
Matilla MJ, Aranko K, Seppala T. Acute effects of buspirone and alcohol on psychomotor skills. J Clin Psychiatry 1982;43:56–60.
Lader M. Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists in neuropsychiatry: an update. J Clin Psychiatry 1988;49:213–223.
Shuckit MA. Current therapeutic options in the management of typical anxiety. J Clin Psychiatry 1981;142:15–26.
Goodman WK, McDougle CJ, Barr LC, Aronson SC, Price LH. Biological approaches to treatment-resistant obsessive compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:16–26.
Piccinelli M, Pini S, Bellantuono C, Wilkinson G. Efficacy of drug treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder. A meta-analytic review. Br J Psychiatry 1995;166:424–443.
Kaplan A, Hollander E. A review of pharmacologic treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatr Serv 2003;54:1111–1118.
Wheadon D, Bushnell W, Steiner M. A fixed dose comparison of 20, 40, and 60 mg paroxetine to placebo in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American College of Neuropharmacology; 1993.
Koran LM, Hackett E, Rubin A, Wolkow R, Robinson D. Efficacy of sertraline in the long-term treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:88–95.
Denys D, van der Wee N, van Megen HJ, Westenberg HG. A double blind comparison of venlafaxine and paroxetine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2003;23:568–575.
Todorov C, Freeston MH, Borgeat F. On the pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder: is a consensus possible? Can J Psychiatry 2000;45:257–262.
McDougle CJ, Goodman WK, Leckman JF, Price LH. The psychopharmacology of obsessive compulsive disorder. Implications for treatment and pathogenesis. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1993;16:749–766.
Thorén P, Asberg M, Cronholm B, Jörnestedt L, Träskman L. Clomipramine treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. I: a controlled clinical trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980;37:1281–1285.
Insel TR. New Findings in Obsessive-compulsive Disorder. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association Publishing; 1984.
Ananth J. Clomipramine an antiobsessive drug. Can J Psychiatry 1986;31:253–258.
Zohar 1, Insel TR. Drug treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Affective Disord 1987;13:193–202.
Zohar J, Insel TR. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: psychobiologic approaches to diagnosis, treatment, and pathophysiology. Biol Psychiatry 1987;22:667–687.
Leonard H, Swedo S, Rapoport JL, Coffey M, Cheslow D. Treatment of childhood obsessive- compulsive disorder with clomipramine and desmethylimipramine: a double-blind crossover comparison. Psychopharmacol Bull 1988;24:93–95.
Murphy DL, Zohar J, Benkelfat C, Pato MT, Pigott TA, Insel TR. Obsessive-compulsive disorder as a 5-HT subsystem-related behavioral disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1989; suppl 8:15–24.
DeVeaugh-Geiss J, Landau P, Katz R. Treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder with clomipramine. Psychiatric Annals 1989; 19:97–101.
Monteiro WO, Noshirvani HF, Marks IM, Lelliott PT. Anorgasmia from clomipramine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry 1987;151:107–112.
Mayeux R, Sano M. Treatment of Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1670–1679.
Rogers SL, Farlow MR, Doody RS, Mohs R, Friedhoff LT. A 24-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Donepezil Study Group. Neurology 1998;50:136–145.
Burns A, Russell E, Page S. New drugs for Alzheimer's disease. Br J Psychiatry 1999;174:476–479.
Mega MS, Masterman DM, O'Connor SM, Barclay TR, Cummings JL. The spectrum of behavioral responses to cholinesterase inhibitor therapy in Alzheimer’s disease. Arch Neurol 1999;56:1388–1393.
Doody RS, Geldmacher DS, Gordon B, Perdomo CA, Pratt RD; Donepezil Study Group. Open-label, multicenter, phase 3 extension study of the safety and efficacy of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2001;58:427–433.
Feldman H, Gauthier S, Hecker J, Vellas B, Emir B, Mastey V, Subbiah P; Donepezil MSAD Study Investigators Group. Efficacy of donepezil on maintenance of activities of daily living in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease and the effect on caregiver burden. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003;51:737–744.
Feldman H, Gauthier S, Hecker J. Efficacy and safety of donepezil in patients with more severe Alzheimer's disease: a subgroup analysis from a randomized, placebo controlled trial. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005;20:559–569.
Rösler M, Anand R, Cicin-Sain A, Gauthier S, Agid Y, Dal-Bianco P, Stähelin HB, Hartman R, Gharabawi M. Efficacy and safety of rivastigmine in patients with Alzheimer's disease: international randomized control trial. BMJ 1999;318:633–638.
Corey-Bloom J, Anand R, Veach J. The ENA 713 B352 Study Group. A randomized trial evaluating the efficacy and safety of ENA 713 (rivastigmine tartrate), a new acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, in patients with mild to moderately severe Alzheimer's disease. J Geriatr Psychopharmacol 1998;1:55–65.
Wilkinson D, Murray J. Galantamine. A randomized, double-blind, dose comparison in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Intl J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001;16:852–857.
Rive B, Vercelletto M, Damier FD, Cochran J, François C. Memantine enhances autonomy in moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease. Intl J Geriatr Psychiatry 2004;19:458–464.
Tariot P, Farlow M, Grossberg G. Memantine treatment in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer disease already receiving donepezil. JAMA 2004;294:317–324.
Roane DM, Feinberg TE, Meckler L, Miner CR, Scicutella A, Rosenthal RN. Treatment of dementia-associated agitation with gabapentin. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000;12:40–43.
Tariot PN, Erb R, Leibovici A, Podgorski CA, Cox C, Asnis J, Kolassa J, Irvine C. Carbamazepine treatment of agitation in nursing home patients with dementia : a preliminary study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1994;42:1160–1166.
Mellow AM, Solano-Lopez C, Davis S. Sodium valproate in the treatment of behzvioral disturbances in dementia. J Geriatr Psychitary Neurol 1993;6:203–209.
Lott DA, McElroy SL, Keys MA. Valproate in the treatment of behavioral agitation in elderly patients with dementia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurol 1995;7:314–319.
Grossman F. A review of anticonvulsants in treating agitated demented elderly patients. Pharmacotherapy 1998;18:600–606.
Schenck CH, Mahowald MW, Sack RL. Assessment and management of insomnia. JAMA 2003;289:2475–2479.
Krystal AD. The changing perspective on chronic insomnia management. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65:20–25.
Holbrook AM, Crowther R, Lotter A, Cheng C, King D. The diagnosis and management of insomnia in clinical practice: a practical evidence-based approach. CMAJ 2000;162:216–220.
Anonymous: Lunesta [eszopiclone] Product Information. 2005
Anonymous: Rozerem [rameleteon] Product Information. 2005
Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS, Rosenheck RA, Perkins DO, Keefe RS, Davis SM, Davis CE, Lebowitz BD, Severe J, Hsiao JK; Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) Investigators. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1209–1223.
Jones PB, Barnes TR, Davies L Dunn G, Lloyd H, Hayhurst KP, Murray RM, Markwick A, Lewis SW. Randomized controlled trial of the effect on quality of life of second-vs first-generation antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: Cost utility of the latest antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia study (CUtLASS1). Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:1079–1087.
Agid O, Seeman P, Kapur S. The “delayed onset” of antipsychotic action--an idea whose time has come and gone. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2006;31:93–100.
Agid O, Kapur S, Arenovich T, Zipursky RB. Delayed-onset hypothesis of antipsychotic action: a hypothesis tested and rejected. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:1228–1235.
Kapur S, Arenovich T, Agid O, Zipursky R, Lindborg S, Jones B. Evidence for onset of antipsychotic effects within the first 24 hours of treatment. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:939–946.
Honer WG, Thornton AE, Chen EY, Chan RC, Wong JO, Bergmann A, Falkai P, Pomarol-Clotet E, McKenna PJ, Stip E, Williams R, MacEwan GW, Wasan K, Procyshyn R; Clozapine and Risperidone Enhancement (CARE) Study Group. Clozapine alone versus clozapine and risperidone with refractory schizophrenia. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:472–482.
Anonymous: Fanapt [iloperidone] Product information. 2013.
Anonymous: Latuda [lurasidone] Product information. 2012.
Anonymous: Invega [paliperidone] Product information. 2011.
Sultzer DL, Davis SM, Tariot PN, Dagerman KS, Lebowitz BD, Lyketsos CG, Rosenheck RA, Hsiao JK, Lieberman JA, Schneider LS; CATIE-AD Study Group. Clinical symptom responses to atypical antipsychotic medications in Alzheimer's disease: phase 1 outcomes from the CATIE-AD effectiveness trial. Am J Psychiatry 2008;165:844–854.
Vigen CL, Mack WJ, Keefe RS, Sano M, Sultzer DL, Stroup TS, Dagerman KS, Hsiao JK, Lebowitz BD, Lyketsos CG, Tariot PN, Zheng L, Schneider LS. Cognitive effects of atypical antipsychotic medications in patients with Alzheimer's disease: outcomes from CATIE-AD. Am J Psychiatry 2011;168:831–839.
Anonymous: Abilify [aripiprazole] Product information. 2012.
Anonymous: Abilify Maintena [aripiprazole] Product information. 2013.
Anonymous: Saphris [asenapine] Product information. 2013.
Anonymous: Zyprexa Relprevv [olanzapine] Product information. 2011.
Anonymous: Seroquel [quetiapine] Product information. 2013.
Anonymous: Risperdal [risperidone] Product information. 2012.
Peña MS, Yaltho TC, Jankovic J. Tardive dyskinesia and other movement disorders secondary to aripiprazole. Mov Disord 2011;26:147–152.
Margolese HC, Chouinard G, Beauclair L, Bélanger MC. Therapeutic tolerance and rebound psychosis during quetiapine maintenance monotherapy in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;22:347–352.
Alexopoulos GS, Jeste DV, Chung H, Carpenter D, Ross R, Docherty JP. The expert consensus guideline series. Treatment of dementia and its behavioral disturbances. Introduction: methods, commentary, and summary. Postgrad Med 2005;Spec No:6-22.
Downing LJ, Caprio TV, Lyness JM. Geriatric psychiatry review: differential diagnosis and treatment of the 3 D’s - delerium, dementia, and depression. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2013;15:365.
Mehndiratta P, Sajatovic M. Treatments for patients with comorbid epilepsy and depression: A systematic literature review. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;28:36–40.
Ehde DM, Kraft GH, Chwastiak L, Sullivan MD, Gibbons LE, Bombardier CH, Wadhwani R. Efficacy of paroxetine in treating major depressive disorder in persons with multiple sclerosis. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2008;30:40–48.
Mohr DC, Boudewyn AC, Goodkin DE, Bostrom A, Epstein L. Comparative outcomes for individual cognitive-behavior therapy, supportive-expressive group psychotherapy, and sertraline for the treatment of depression in multiple sclerosis. J Consult Clin Psychol 2001;69:942–949.
Skokou M, Soubasi E, Gourzis P. Depression in multiple sclerosis: a review of assessment and treatment approaches in adult and pediatric populations. ISRN Neurol 2012;2012:427102.
Paolucci S. Role, indications, and controversies of antidepressant therapy in chronic stroke patients. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med 2013;49:233–241.
Laoutidis ZG, Mathiak K. Antidepressants in the treatment of depression/depressive symptoms in cancer patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry 2013;13:140.
Baumeister H, Hutter N, Bengel J. Psychological and pharmacological interventions for depression in patients with diabetes mellitus and depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;12:CD008381.
Primeau MM, Avellaneda V, Musselman D, Jean GS, Illa L. Treatment of Depression in Individuals Living with HIV/AIDS. Psychosomatics 2013;54:336–344.
Hill L, Lee KC. Pharmacotherapy considerations in patients with HIV and psychiatric disorders: focus on antidepressants and antipsychotics. Ann Pharmacother 2013;47:75–89.
Glassman A. Depression and cardiovascular disease. Pharmacopsychiatry 2008;41:221–225.
Davidson KW, Burg MM. Implementing an antidepressant treatment strategy for post-MI depression does not reduce risk of further cardiovascular events or mortality. Evid Based Ment Health 2013;16:72.
Sie SD, Wennink JM, van Driel JJ, te Winkel AG, Boer K, Casteelen G, van Weissenbruch MM. Maternal use of SSRIs, SNRIs and NaSSAs: practical recommendations during pregnancy and lactation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2012;97:472–476.
Serretti A, Mandelli L. Antidepressants and body weight: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry 2010;71:1259–1272.
Jeffreys M, Capehart B, Friedman MJ. Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: review with clinical applications. J Rehabil Res Dev 2012;49:703–715.
Kucharska-Pietura K, Mortimer A. Can antipsychotics improve social cognition in patients with schizophrenia? CNS Drugs 2013;27:335–343.
Lowe CM, Grube RR, Scates AC. Characterization and clinical management of clozapine-induced fever. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41:1700–1704.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Fuller, M.A. (2016). Clinical Psychopharmacology. In: Fatemi, S., Clayton, P. (eds) The Medical Basis of Psychiatry. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2528-5_34
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2528-5_34
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-2527-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-2528-5
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)