Abstract
The chapter is to analyse the features, factors, growth, and outcome of philanthropy in all 47 Muslim majority countries (MMCs) in Africa and Asia. It aims to define the characteristics and management issues related to philanthropy and its relationship to human security. The major sections of the chapter deals with obligatory charitable giving (zakat al-mal) divided into two sections: one deals with MMCs that have made mandatory provisions of zakat management; and the other section deals with MMCs that have institutionalised the functions of collection and distribution of such giving without any mandatory provision. The chapter concludes that due to the absence of a unified and central body of Muslim jurists (in Sunni Muslim countries), the legitimacy of urf (norms), adat (customary laws) as the sources of Islamic jurisprudence, and the characters of the state, civil-military relationships, state’s relationship to the ulema, and local traditional power structure the practice of philanthropy has developed differently in different MMCs. It is evident from the analyses that uniformity of the above characteristics is unlikely so is the human security outcomes of philanthropy in MMCs.
The author extends his thanks to an anonymous reviewer in Turkey (who was selected and contacted by a colleague, Dr. Mumin Dayan, at the UAEU) for helpful comments on an earlier draft.
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Notes
- 1.
Explanation of Sermon 208 by the fourth caliph of Sunni Muslim (also regarded as the first Imam by Shi’a Muslims) Ali ibn Abi Talib, available in Nahj al-Balagha.
- 2.
From Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328 CE)—a Sunni Hanbali scholar advocating return to the roots of Islam abandoning foreign influence, quoted in Lambton (1981: 146).
- 3.
Quoted from Sayyid Qutb (also spelt Syed Qutub—prominent Islamic theorist of Egypt of the 1950s and 1960s) in Tripp (2005: 166–7).
- 4.
This paragraph is based on Kadi (2006).
- 5.
Awqaf (singl. waqf) refers to Muslim charitable foundations; Ahbas (pl. of habus), refers to religious foundations created exclusively to meet salary and other expenses of the “ulemas” (scholars; also spelled ulama, plural of ‘alim) and maintenance expenses of the respective institutions.
- 6.
God’s blessing and peace be upon him (PBUH). Muslim readers are supposed to (and reminded of the obligation) to utter the blessings to the Prophet every time they come across his name.
- 7.
Per capita income of citizens in Qatar will be much higher if adjusted by discounting 80 % non-citizens (and their income) most of whom are involved in unskilled low-paid jobs.
- 8.
Constitutions are available at the Richmond University: http://confinder.richmond.edu/ on 7 August 2013.
- 9.
Laws are primarily available in the International Centre for Non-Profit Law website: www.icnl.org; last visited on 31 October 2013.
- 10.
Comprehensively surveying the International Journal of Non-Profit Law (IJNL: www.icnl.org/journal/journal.html) and the Academic Searchfile database; last visited on 31 October 2013.
- 11.
The author’s field works, research consultancy, and discussions with colleagues in a dozen countries in South Asia and Southeast Asia for the study of the Asia Pacific Philanthropy Information Network (APPIN) work (undertaken and updated between 2000 and 2007 for a website, www.asianphilanthropy.org) are the bases of understanding of the laws, traditions, urf (norms) and adat (customary laws) that have influenced the third sector in MMCs in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Pakistan. Further, the author’s work experience in Gulf country and purposive interaction with the colleagues from different MMCs are also another source of understanding some issues from the MMCs in North Africa and in West Asia, especially the GCC countries discussed here.
- 12.
The first set of digits refers to Chapter number in the Qur’an; the next one to the verse number. In subsequent references in this chapter only the digits are mentioned. Please note all verses of the Qur’an in this Chapter are taken from the English version by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (1938).
- 13.
This is often in lieu of the monetary contribution, as in Bangladesh (discussed in Hasan, 2007), not to have the poor people left out from the “Heavenly Rewards.”
- 14.
Approximately 99 % of about 8,000 madrasas in Bangladesh are established and run by the community. In addition, there are muqtubs attached to approximately 200,000 mosques in the country (cf. Hasan, 2007).
- 15.
Revealed in a recent work by K.C. Zakariah and S. Irudaya Rajan, Kerala’s Gulf Connection, 1998–2011: Economic and Social Impact of Migration, Orient Black Swan, New Delhi, 2012. Based on this claim, 5 % remittance as “gift” in Bangladesh will equal to $340 million, $300 million in Morocco, and $250 million in Nigeria corresponding to total annual remittance of about $8b, $6b, and $5b, respectively.
- 16.
- 17.
Profit sharing activity with combined inputs (shared by the respective capital, and physical and/or mental labor providers) where the loss is borne only by the provider of the capital (Hasan, 2007).
- 18.
Two or more parties provide capital in a joint venture and share in the profit or loss according to the agreed terms (not corresponding to the capital contribution ratio). Additional payments can be made over and above the financier’s share of the profits to reduce the financier’s equity to zero and ensure full ownership of the other party(ies) (Hasan, 2007).
- 19.
Modern Islamic scholars favor paying zakat voluntarily on dwelling houses, consumer durables (television, refrigerator), and jewels and gems (in excess of what is considered essential; obviously not included in the original list for calculation of zakat). They argue that the so-called non-productive assets can be seen as hoarding in non-liquid form, and thus, zakat needs to be given within the purview of Islamic law (Zafree & Amin, 2003: 45); see also al-Qardawi, n.d.; Hasan, 2007 for details.
- 20.
- 21.
On gold and silver coins; on camels, cows and sheep; on wheat, barley, dates and raisins.
- 22.
According to the Sunni Hanafi School, zakat al-mal is not applicable to the company capital, rather on the individual share, subject to the nisab. Again, zakat al-mal can be levied, only on such parts of the shares that are invested. Nisab amount for the shares should be the present market value (Zafree & Amin, 2003: 45).
- 23.
Buildings, furniture and fixtures of stores that are not acquired for sale are not zakatable assets (al-Qardawi, n.d.).
- 24.
The original dictum was one Sa’ (an old Arabian measure equivalent to 2.75 kg) of dates or barley (the staple food of the Arabs). Each country now calculates zakat al-fitr equal to the price of 2.75 kg of staple food. The volume was fixed believing it to be enough for making bread for 3 days of Eid celebration for a person when no work was to be available, see The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, E.J. Brill, Leiden; NY, 1993.
- 25.
Nahj al-Balagha, Letter 53.
- 26.
Nahj al-Balagha, Letter 25.
- 27.
For example, “When you reach a group of people (tribe or village) to assess a tax [zakat] on them, then stay only at their watering-place (a well or water-hole, the most convenient place for stay in the desert regions) and do not stay in their houses. Then go to them maintaining your dignity and prestige and when you are in their midst, wish them peace and blessings of Allah and show due respect to them.” Nahj al-Balagha (by the fourth Caliph of the Sunni Muslims Ali ibn Abi-Talib), Letter 25.
- 28.
Afghanistan, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Burkina Faso, Chad, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Qatar, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
- 29.
The “faqir” (poor) is one who on account of some difficulties is unable to earn a living, while the “miskin” (needy) is one who though fit to earn a living, due to lack of resources or on account of poverty, is unable to do so, e.g., the unemployed graduates (Abedayo, 2011).
- 30.
“The state shall endeavor, as respects the Muslims of Pakistan: to secure the proper organization of zakat, [ushr], awqaf and mosques” (Government of Pakistan, 1973, The Constitution Of The Islamic Republic Of Pakistan, Article, 31).
- 31.
This paragraph is based on Powel (2010) (unless mentioned otherwise).
- 32.
Ijtihad, opposite of taqleed or following without understanding is a jurist’s independent analysis and decision about an issue not covered by the Qur’an, Sunnah, or Isma (jurists’ consensus).
- 33.
The list includes bank savings accounts; notice deposit accounts; fixed deposit accounts; savings certificates; national investment trust units; Investment Corporation of Pakistan certificates; government securities; shares of companies; annuities; life insurance policies; and provident funds. The purpose of restricting the compulsory deduction of zakat to these 11 assets was to establish a system that is operationally feasible, administratively convenient, and socially acceptable within the existing economic framework (Islam & Sarker, 2003: 234–5).
- 34.
Fixed at Rs.1,000 in 1980; revised every year; in 2013 it was refixed at Rs. 41,872 or $405, The Nation, 7 July 2013.
- 35.
The Zakat Deducting Agencies (i.e., public financial institutions such as banks and post offices) deduct zakat money on the accounts balance on the first day of the month of Ramadhan (the month of fasting) without any reference to the asset-holder (Islam & Sarker, 2003: 234–5).
- 36.
Non-Muslims and Non-Pakistanis are exempted from the compulsory deduction of zakat (Islam & Sarker, 2003: 237). There are other exclusions as well. For example, a government or local authority; legal corporation, company, enterprise or its subsidiary owned wholly by the government or local authority; a zakat fund; a charitable endowment; a religious school; and a mosque are not subject to this zakat deduction system (Islam & Sarker, 2003: 236).
- 37.
The zakat payers, i.e., Saudi and other GCC nationals and companies, are required to file a declaration showing zakatable goods, properties, cash, and profits. A financial officer reviews the declaration and then informs the zakat payer of the amount of zakat that is owed (Powell, 2010).
- 38.
Kharaj is land tax, especially for non-Muslim landowners.
- 39.
Cited in Hasan (2007) from a discussion with Mr M.Rais H.Aias, General Manager, PPZ, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
- 40.
The National Survey of Individual Giving (1998–1999) estimated individual giving in Pakistan during 1998 as Rs. 30 billion (1.5 % of the GDP) comprising Rs. 14 billion in zakat and Rs. 16 billion in non-zakat donations. The $ figures are updated in proportion to the current GDP; see also AKDN (2000).
- 41.
This allocation is intended to cover two categories of zakat recipients mentioned in the Qur’an: “those whose hearts are to be reconciled” and “for the cause of Allah” (Powell, 2010).
- 42.
This paragraph is based on Powell (2010).
- 43.
For example, a five-member family’s basic necessity expense is calculated to be $805 per month, and shortfall is met with zakat support; low income families also receive additional payment (@ $1,300/head of family and $380/per person; rental (including the utility) expenses are paid at a maximum $500.00/month (Abdullah, 2010).
- 44.
Educational support includes all forms of expenses including fees, stationery, text books, transport cost, etc. as well as $60.00/student monthly pocket money (Abdullah, 2010).
- 45.
Health care support covers, if and as required, overseas medical expenses (including the patient’s travel cost, accommodation, and subsistence allowance, $30.00/person/day, during the stay abroad (Abdullah, 2010).
- 46.
The participants are offered skills in using computer and office administration, baking cakes, pastry, cooking and catering, saloon and hair dressing, car repairing and welding, and basic sewing and embroidery. Facilities provided are transportation, allowance for stationery, uniforms, training equipment, refreshment allowance, and pocket money allowance (Abdullah, 2010).
- 47.
For example, fishing boat complete with fishing equipment, taxi boat and engine, sewing machine, equipment and materials for cultivation, equipment for food processing, inventory and other equipment needed for businesses have been provided to 47 people at an expense of $309,000 between 2001 and 2007 (Abdullah, 2010).
- 48.
In 2004 the Division of Zakat Collection and Disbursement in Brunei had $239.6 million accumulated zakat funds (Abdullah, 2010).
- 49.
The Nasser Social Bank for decades has been an important collector and distributor of zakat in Egypt; zakat collected in the mosques are deposited in the bank. The mosque-based zakat Committees are legally registered to administer the zakat (Kandil, 1993).
- 50.
Imam Shafi’i opines that the transfer of zakat from the locality of its origin is permitted only when no zakat recipient is available in the zakat collection area. Imam Malik, left it to the authority to select areas for zakat distribution. The Hanafi School finds no problem in distributing zakat money outside the collection area (Zafree & Amin, 2003: 48).
- 51.
These clinics, supported by the zakat funds, have at least 35 % Christian patients; and employ female doctors in all fields of medicine and male gynecologists (cited in Hasan, 2007); there also has been tradition of no religious segregation in such health service facilities. For example, the Nuruddin Charitable Hospital in Baghdad in the twelfth century CE did not have religious segregation. Source: BBC Documentary on Islam and Science by Jimi al-Khalili.
- 52.
There are already models of government’s initiatives in reforming Islamic system of human relationships. For example, many Muslim majority countries have improved the family laws to suit the present-day needs and making it compatible to respective civil laws within the basic principles of Islam. Shi’a Muslims in Iran have an institutionalized system of Islamic jurists to regulate all religious affairs including the zakat management, through the “bonyads” (religious or charitable foundations), for example (see Chap. 5).
- 53.
Kahf (2003) suggests a solution to this issue: zakat can be given to a poor person on condition that the recipient use it for health services. Medicine can also be given because medicine is something that a poor can own. Thus, zakat money cannot be given to a health centre to provide medical service to the poor by hiring a doctor. One can also provide shelter with zakat money on condition that he or she will be made owner of that house (Kahf, 2003: 85).
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Hasan, S. (2015). Muslim Philanthropy: Praxis and Human Security Across Muslim Majority Countries. In: Hasan, S. (eds) Human Security and Philanthropy. Nonprofit and Civil Society Studies. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2525-4_5
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