Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Pregnancy and Childhood Thyroid Eye Disease

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Thyroid Eye Disease

  • 1440 Accesses

Abstract

Thyroid eye disease (TED) occurs infrequently during pregnancy and childhood. However, pregnancy and childhood are periods of immune system development and tolerance formation. During this time, the host immune system may uniquely alter the disease presentation and course of autoimmune diseases such as Graves’ disease (GD) and TED.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Adams Waldorf KM, Nelson JL. Autoimmune disease during pregnancy and the microchimerism legacy of pregnancy. Immunol Invest. 2008;37(5):631–44.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Balucan FS, Morshed SA, Davies TF. Thyroid autoantibodies in pregnancy: their role, regulation and clinical relevance. J Thyroid Res. 2013;2013:182472.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Buyon JP. The effects of pregnancy on autoimmune diseases. J Leukoc Biol. 1998;63(3):281–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Fugazzola L, Cirello V, Beck-Peccoz P. Microchimerism and endocrine disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(5):1452–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Adams Waldorf KM, Gammill HS, Lucas J, Aydelotte TM, Leisenring WM, Lambert NC, et al. Dynamic changes in fetal microchimerism in maternal peripheral blood mononuclear cells, CD4+ and CD8+ cells in normal pregnancy. Placenta. 2010;31(7):589–94.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Williams RH, Larsen PR. Williams textbook of endocrinology. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Schott M, Morgenthaler NG, Fritzen R, Feldkamp J, Willenberg HS, Scherbaum WA, et al. Levels of autoantibodies against human TSH receptor predict relapse of hyperthyroidism in Graves’ disease. Horm Metab Res. 2004;36(2):92–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Klintschar M, Schwaiger P, Mannweiler S, Regauer S, Kleiber M. Evidence of fetal microchimerism in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(6):2494–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Klintschar M, Immel UD, Kehlen A, Schwaiger P, Mustafa T, Mannweiler S, et al. Fetal microchimerism in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis: a quantitative approach. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;154(2):237–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Renne C, Ramos Lopez E, Steimle-Grauer SA, Ziolkowski P, Pani MA, Luther C, et al. Thyroid fetal male microchimerisms in mothers with thyroid disorders: presence of Y-chromosomal immunofluorescence in thyroid-infiltrating lymphocytes is more prevalent in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and Graves’ disease than in follicular adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(11):5810–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Walsh JP, Bremner AP, Bulsara MK, O’Leary P, Leedman PJ, Feddema P, et al. Parity and the risk of autoimmune thyroid disease: a community-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(9):5309–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Chan GW, Mandel SJ. Therapy insight: management of Graves’ disease during pregnancy. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2007;3(6):470–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Abalovich M, Amino N, Barbour LA, Cobin RH, De Groot LJ, Glinoer D, et al. Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(8 Suppl):S1–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Krajewski DA, Burman KD. Thyroid disorders in pregnancy. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2011;40(4):739–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Patil-Sisodia K, Mestman JH. Graves hyperthyroidism and pregnancy: a clinical update. Endocr Pract. 2010;16(1):118–29.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Brent GA. Clinical practice. Graves’ disease. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(24):2594–605.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Weetman AP. Graves’ disease. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(17):1236–48.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Smith BHR. Thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins in Graves’ disease. Lancet. 1974;304(7878):427–30.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Stagnaro-Green A. Clinical review 152: postpartum thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(9):4042–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Fitzpatrick DL, Russell MA. Diagnosis and management of thyroid disease in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2010;37(2):173–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Stagnaro-Green A, Abalovich M, Alexander E, Azizi F, Mestman J, Negro R, et al. Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and postpartum. Thyroid. 2011;21(10):1081–125.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Glinoer D. The regulation of thyroid function in pregnancy: pathways of endocrine adaptation from physiology to pathology. Endocr Rev. 1997;18(3):404–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Gonzalez-Jimenez A, Fernandez-Soto ML, Escobar-Jimenez F, Glinoer D, Navarrete L. Thyroid function parameters and TSH-receptor antibodies in healthy subjects and Graves’ disease patients: a sequential study before, during and after pregnancy. Thyroidology. 1993;5(1):13–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Kamijo K. TSH-receptor antibodies determined by the first, second and third generation assays and thyroid-stimulating antibody in pregnant patients with Graves’ disease. Endocr J. 2007;54(4):619–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Tamaki H, Amino N, Iwatani Y, Tachi J, Mitsuda N, Tanizawa O, et al. Discordant changes in serum anti-TSH receptor antibody and antithyroid microsomal antibody during pregnancy in autoimmune thyroid diseases. Thyroidology. 1989;1(2):73–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Amino N, Kuro R, Tanizawa O, Tanaka F, Hayashi C, Kotani K, et al. Changes of serum anti-thyroid antibodies during and after pregnancy in autoimmune thyroid diseases. Clin Exp Immunol. 1978;31(1):30–7.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Lacey B, Chang W, Rootman J. Nonthyroid causes of extraocular muscle disease. Surv Ophthalmol. 1999;44(3):187–213.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Patrinely JR, Osborn AG, Anderson RL, Whiting AS. Computed tomographic features of nonthyroid extraocular muscle enlargement. Ophthalmology. 1989;96(7):1038–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Germain S, Saha S, Nelson-Piercy C, Stanford M, Carroll P. Severe sight-threatening thyroid eye disease presenting de novo in an euthyroid pregnant woman. Endocr Abstracts. 2008;15:393.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Stafford IP, Dildy III GA, Miller Jr JM. Severe Graves’ ophthalmopathy in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105(5 Pt 2):1221–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Abbouda A, Trimboli P, Bruscolini A. A mild Grave’s ophthalmopathy during pregnancy. Semin Ophthalmol. 2014;29(1):8–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Nüßgens Z, Roggenkämper P, Schweikert HU. Endocrine orbitopathy unusual deterioration during pregnancy. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1993;202(02):130–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Burch HB, Wartofsky L. Graves’ ophthalmopathy: current concepts regarding pathogenesis and management. Endocr Rev. 1993;14(6):747–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Dickinson J, Perros P. Thyroid-associated orbitopathy: who and how to treat. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2009;38(2):373–88, ix.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Meriggioli MN, Sanders DB. Autoimmune myasthenia gravis: emerging clinical and biological heterogeneity. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8(5):475–90.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Batocchi AP, Majolini L, Evoli A, Lino MM, Minisci C, Tonali P. Course and treatment of myasthenia gravis during pregnancy. Neurology. 1999;52(3):447–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Marino M, Ricciardi R, Pinchera A, Barbesino G, Manetti L, Chiovato L, et al. Mild clinical expression of myasthenia gravis associated with autoimmune thyroid diseases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82(2):438–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Gold R, Schneider-Gold C. Current and future standards in treatment of myasthenia gravis. Neurotherapeutics. 2008;5(4):535–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Cummings CW, Flint PW. Cummings otolaryngology head & neck surgery, Vol. 3. Philadelphia: Mosby Elsevier; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Bartalena L, Pinchera A, Marcocci C. Management of Graves’ ophthalmopathy: reality and perspectives. Endocr Rev. 2000;21(2):168–99.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Torring O, Wallin G, Ljunggren JG, Blomgren H, et al. Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves’ hyperthyroidism. The Thyroid Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1992;326(26):1733–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Stan MN, Garrity JA, Bahn RS. The evaluation and treatment of graves ophthalmopathy. Med Clin North Am. 2012;96(2):311–28.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Dickinson AJ, Eckstein A, Kendall-Taylor P, Marcocci C, et al. Consensus statement of the European group on Graves’ orbitopathy (EUGOGO) on management of Graves’ orbitopathy. Thyroid. 2008;18(3):333–46.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Clementi M, Di Gianantonio E, Cassina M, Leoncini E, Botto LD, Mastroiacovo P. Treatment of hyperthyroidism in pregnancy and birth defects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(11):E337–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Heufelder AE, Bahn RS, Smith TJ. Regulation by glucocorticoids of interferon gamma-induced HLA-DR antigen expression in cultured human orbital fibroblasts. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1992;37(1):59–63.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Meyer KC, Decker C, Baughman R. Toxicity and monitoring of immunosuppressive therapy used in systemic autoimmune diseases. Clin Chest Med. 2010;31(3):565–88.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Kahaly GJ, Pitz S, Hommel G, Dittmar M. Randomized, single blind trial of intravenous versus oral steroid monotherapy in Graves’ orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(9):5234–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Carmichael SL, Shaw GM, Ma C, Werler MM, Rasmussen SA, Lammer EJ. Maternal corticosteroid use and orofacial clefts. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197(6):585.e1–7, discussion 683–4.e1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Park-Wyllie L, Mazzotta P, Pastuszak A, Moretti ME, Beique L, Hunnisett L, et al. Birth defects after maternal exposure to corticosteroids: prospective cohort study and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Teratology. 2000;62(6):385–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Chen KK, Powrie RO. Approach to the use of Glucocorticoids in Pregnancy for Nonobstetric Indications. 2010:736–41.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Ostensen M, Khamashta M, Lockshin M, Parke A, Brucato A, Carp H, et al. Anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs and reproduction. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006;8(3):209.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Guller S, Kong L, Wozniak R, Lockwood CJ. Reduction of extracellular matrix protein expression in human amnion epithelial cells by glucocorticoids: a potential role in preterm rupture of the fetal membranes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1995;80(7):2244–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Lockwood CJ, Radunovic N, Nastic D, Petkovic S, Aigner S, Berkowitz GS. Corticotropin-releasing hormone and related pituitary-adrenal axis hormones in fetal and maternal blood during the second half of pregnancy. J Perinat Med. 1996;24(3):243–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Tegethoff M, Pryce C, Meinlschmidt G. Effects of intrauterine exposure to synthetic glucocorticoids on fetal, newborn, and infant hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in humans: a systematic review. Endocr Rev. 2009;30(7):753–89.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Lunghi L, Pavan B, Biondi C, Paolillo R, Valerio A, Vesce F, et al. Use of glucocorticoids in pregnancy. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(32):3616–37.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Kurtoglu S, Sarici D, Akin MA, Daar G, Korkmaz L, Memur S. Fetal adrenal suppression due to maternal corticosteroid use: case report. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2011;3(3):160–2.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Briggs GG, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ. Drugs in pregnancy and lactation: a reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  58. National Heart Lung, Blood Institute, National Asthma Education and Prevention Program, Third Expert Panel on the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. Expert Panel report 3 guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Bethesda: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; 2007. Available from: http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS93946

  59. Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Bartalena L, Prummel M, Stahl M, et al. Selenium and the course of mild Graves’ orbitopathy. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(20):1920–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Chang TC, Liao SL. Slow-release lanreotide in Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Endocrinol Invest. 2006;29(5):413–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Dickinson AJ, Vaidya B, Miller M, Coulthard A, Perros P, Baister E, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of octreotide long-acting repeatable (LAR) in thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(12):5910–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Stan MN, Garrity JA, Bradley EA, Woog JJ, Bahn MM, Brennan MD, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of long-acting release octreotide for treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(12):4817–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Wemeau JL, Caron P, Beckers A, Rohmer V, Orgiazzi J, Borson-Chazot F, et al. Octreotide (long-acting release formulation) treatment in patients with graves’ orbitopathy: clinical results of a four-month, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(2):841–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. de Menis E, Billeci D, Marton E, Gussoni G. Uneventful pregnancy in an acromegalic patient treated with slow-release lanreotide: a case report. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84(4):1489.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Mikhail N. Octreotide treatment of acromegaly during pregnancy. Mayo Clin Proc. 2002;77(3):297–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Neal JM. Successful pregnancy in a woman with acromegaly treated with octreotide. Endocr Pract. 2000;6(2):148–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Wakelkamp IM, Baldeschi L, Saeed P, Mourits MP, Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM. Surgical or medical decompression as a first-line treatment of optic neuropathy in Graves’ ophthalmopathy? A randomized controlled trial. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2005;63(3):323–8.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. ACOG Committee opinion. Nonobstetric surgery in pregnancy. Number 284, August 2003. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2003;83(1):135.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Rojansky N, Reubinoff BE, Shapira SC, Weinstein D. Safety of surgical intervention during the second trimester of pregnancy. A case report. J Reprod Med. 1994;39(10):821–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Fernandez Sanchez JR, Rosell Pradas J, Carazo Martinez O, Torres Vela E, Escobar Jimenez F, Garbin Fuentes I, et al. Graves’ ophthalmopathy after subtotal thyroidectomy and radioiodine therapy. Br J Surg. 1993;80(9):1134–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Winsa B, Rastad J, Akerstrom G, Johansson H, Westermark K, Karlsson FA. Retrospective evaluation of subtotal and total thyroidectomy in Graves’ disease with and without endocrine ophthalmopathy. Eur J Endocrinol. 1995;132(4):406–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Werner SC, Ingbar SH, Braverman LE, Cooper DS. Werner & Ingbar’s the thyroid : a fundamental and clinical text. Philadelphia, Pa.; London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Watkins MG, Dejkhamron P, Huo J, Vazquez DM, Menon RK. Persistent neonatal thyrotoxicosis in a neonate secondary to a rare thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor activating mutation: case report and literature review. Endocr Pract. 2008;14(4):479–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Wiersinga WM. Thyroid associated ophthalmopathy: pediatric and endocrine aspects. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev. 2004;1 Suppl 3:513–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Bauer AJ. Approach to the pediatric patient with Graves’ disease: when is definitive therapy warranted? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(3):580–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Segni M, Leonardi E, Mazzoncini B, Pucarelli I, Pasquino AM. Special features of Graves’ disease in early childhood. Thyroid. 1999;9(9):871–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Gruneiro-Papendieck L, Chiesa A, Finkielstain G, Heinrich JJ. Pediatric Graves’ disease: outcome and treatment. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2003;16(9):1249–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Gruters A. Ocular manifestations in children and adolescents with thyrotoxicosis. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 1999;107 Suppl 5:S172–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Bartley GB, Gorman CA. Diagnostic criteria for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;119(6):792–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Sherman J, Thompson GB, Lteif A, Schwenk II WF, van Heerden J, Farley DR, et al. Surgical management of Graves disease in childhood and adolescence: an institutional experience. Surgery. 2006;140(6):1056–61, discussion 1061–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Kaguelidou F, Alberti C, Castanet M, Guitteny MA, Czernichow P, Leger J. Predictors of autoimmune hyperthyroidism relapse in children after discontinuation of antithyroid drug treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(10):3817–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Leger J, Gelwane G, Kaguelidou F, Benmerad M, Alberti C. Positive impact of long-term antithyroid drug treatment on the outcome of children with Graves’ disease: national long-term cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(1):110–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Segni M, Gorman CA. The aftermath of childhood hyperthyroidism. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2001;14 Suppl 5:1277–82, discussion 1297–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Krassas GE, Segni M, Wiersinga WM. Childhood Graves’ ophthalmopathy: results of a European questionnaire study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2005;153(4):515–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Gorton C, Sadeghi-Nejad A, Senior B. Remission in children with hyperthyroidism treated with propylthiouracil. Long-term results. Am J Dis Child. 1987;141(10):1084–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Hamburger JI. Management of hyperthyroidism in children and adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985;60(5):1019–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Kaguelidou F, Carel JC, Leger J. Graves’ disease in childhood: advances in management with antithyroid drug therapy. Horm Res. 2009;71(6):310–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Weetman AP. Graves’ hyperthyroidism: how long should antithyroid drug therapy be continued to achieve remission? Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2006;2(1):2–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Nikiforov Y, Gnepp DR, Fagin JA. Thyroid lesions in children and adolescents after the Chernobyl disaster: implications for the study of radiation tumorigenesis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81(1):9–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Read Jr CH, Tansey MJ, Menda Y. A 36-year retrospective analysis of the efficacy and safety of radioactive iodine in treating young Graves’ patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(9):4229–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Rivkees SA, Sklar C, Freemark M. Clinical review 99: the management of Graves’ disease in children, with special emphasis on radioiodine treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83(11):3767–76.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Safa AM, Schumacher OP. Letter: follow-up of children treated with 131-I. N Engl J Med. 1976;294(1):54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Antoniazzi F, Zamboni G, Cerini R, Lauriola S, Dall’Agnola A, Tato L. Graves’ ophthalmopathy evolution studied by MRI during childhood and adolescence. J Pediatr. 2004;144(4):527–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Lee JH, Park SH, Koh DG, Suh BK. Thyroid peroxidase antibody positivity and triiodothyronine levels are associated with pediatric Graves’ ophthalmopathy. World J Pediatr. 2014;10(2):155–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Durairaj VD, Bartley GB, Garrity JA. Clinical features and treatment of graves ophthalmopathy in pediatric patients. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;22(1):7–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Young LA. Dysthyroid ophthalmopathy in children. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1979;16(2):105–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Gogakos AI, Boboridis K, Krassas GE. Pediatric aspects in Graves’ orbitopathy. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev. 2010;7 Suppl 2:234–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Holt H, Hunter DG, Smith J, Dagi LR. Pediatric Graves’ ophthalmopathy: the pre- and postpubertal experience. J AAPOS. 2008;12(4):357–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Bale Jr JF, Bonkowsky JL, Filloux FM, Hedlund GL, Larsen PD, Nielsen DM. Pediatric neurology. London: Manson; 2011. Available from: http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=619351

  100. Black EH. Smith and Nesi’s ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery. New York: Springer; 2012. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0971-7

  101. Sindhu K, Downie J, Ghabrial R, Martin F. Aetiology of childhood proptosis. J Paediatr Child Health. 1998;34(4):374–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Stout AU, Borchert M. Etiology of eyelid retraction in children: a retrospective study. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1993;30(2):96–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Nucci P, Brancato R, Bandello F, Alfarano R, Bianchi S. Normal exophthalmometric values in children. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;108(5):582–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Eha J, Pitz S, Pohlenz J. Clinical features of pediatric Graves’ orbitopathy. Int Ophthalmol. 2010;30(6):717–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Quant JR, Woo GC. Normal values of eye position and head size in Chinese children from Hong Kong. Optom Vis Sci. 1993;70(8):668–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Gerber FR, Taylor FH, DeLevie M, Drash AL, Kenny FM. Normal standards for exophthalmometry in children 10 to 14 years of age: relation to age, height, weight, and sexual maturation. J Pediatr. 1972;81(2):327–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Goldstein SM, Katowitz WR, Moshang T, Katowitz JA. Pediatric thyroid-associated orbitopathy: the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia experience and literature review. Thyroid. 2008;18(9):997–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Chan W, Wong GW, Fan DS, Cheng AC, Lam DS, Ng JS. Ophthalmopathy in childhood Graves’ disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86(7):740–2.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Acuna OM, Athannassaki I, Paysse EA. Association between thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin levels and ocular findings in pediatric patients with Graves disease. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2007;105:146–50, discussion 150–1.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Uretsky SH, Kennerdell JS, Gutai JP. Graves’ ophthalmopathy in childhood and adolescence. Arch Ophthalmol. 1980;98(11):1963–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Kubo T, Shimizu J, Furujo M, Takeuchi A, Yoshioka-Iwaso H, Eguchi N, et al. An infant case of Graves’ disease with ophthalmopathy. Endocr J. 2005;52(5):647–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Barnes HV, Blizzard RM. Antithyroid drug therapy for toxic diffuse goiter (Graves disease): thirty years experience in children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 1977;91(2):313–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Hegedus L, Bonnema SJ, Smith TJ, Brix TH. Treating the thyroid in the presence of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;26(3):313–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, Panicucci M, Lepri A, Pinchera A. Use of corticosteroids to prevent progression of Graves’ ophthalmopathy after radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med. 1989;321(20):1349–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Ma C, Kuang A, Xie J, Liu G. Radioiodine treatment for pediatric Graves’ disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(3):Cd006294.

    Google Scholar 

  116. McCormack S, Mitchell DM, Woo M, Levitsky LL, Ross DS, Misra M. Radioactive iodine for hyperthyroidism in children and adolescents: referral rate and response to treatment. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2009;71(6):884–91.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Rivkees SA, Dinauer C. An optimal treatment for pediatric Graves’ disease is radioiodine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(3):797–800.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Tallstedt L, Lundell G. Radioiodine treatment, ablation, and ophthalmopathy: a balanced perspective. Thyroid. 1997;7(2):241–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Miccoli P, Vitti P, Rago T, Iacconi P, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, et al. Surgical treatment of Graves’ disease: subtotal or total thyroidectomy? Surgery. 1996;120(6):1020–4, discussion 1024–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Kahaly G, Diaz M, Just M, Beyer J, Lieb W. Role of octreoscan and correlation with MR imaging in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Thyroid. 1995;5(2):107–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Krassas GE, Dumas A, Pontikides N, Kaltsas T. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy and octreotide treatment in patients with thyroid eye disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1995;42(6):571–80.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Moncayo R, Baldissera I, Decristoforo C, Kendler D, Donnemiller E. Evaluation of immunological mechanisms mediating thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy by radionuclide imaging using the somatostatin analog 111In-octreotide. Thyroid. 1997;7(1):21–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Postema PT, Krenning EP, Wijngaarde R, Kooy PP, Oei HY, van den Bosch WA, et al. [111In-DTPA-D-Phe1] octreotide scintigraphy in thyroidal and orbital Graves’ disease: a parameter for disease activity? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;79(6):1845–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Wiersinga WM, Gerding MN, Prummel MF, Krenning EP. Octreotide scintigraphy in thyroidal and orbital Graves’ disease. Thyroid. 1998;8(5):433–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Pasquali D, Notaro A, Bonavolonta G, Vassallo P, Bellastella A, Sinisi AA. Somatostatin receptor genes are expressed in lymphocytes from retroorbital tissues in Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(11):5125–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Pasquali D, Vassallo P, Esposito D, Bonavolonta G, Bellastella A, Sinisi AA. Somatostatin receptor gene expression and inhibitory effects of octreotide on primary cultures of orbital fibroblasts from Graves’ ophthalmopathy. J Mol Endocrinol. 2000;25(1):63–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Update on thyroid eye disease and management. Dove Press; 2009. Available from: http://www.dovepress.com/getfile.php?fileID=5369

  128. Krassas GE, Kaltsas T, Dumas A, Pontikides N, Tolis G. Lanreotide in the treatment of patients with thyroid eye disease. Eur J Endocrinol. 1997;136(4):416–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Kung AW, Michon J, Tai KS, Chan FL. The effect of somatostatin versus corticosteroid in the treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Thyroid. 1996;6(5):381–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Otukesh H, Hoseini R, Rahimzadeh N, Fazel M. Rituximab in the treatment of nephrotic syndrome: a systematic review. Iran J Kidney Dis. 2013;7(4):249–56.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Minakaran N, Ezra DG. Rituximab for thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(5):Cd009226.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Salvi M, Vannucchi G, Beck-Peccoz P. Potential utility of rituximab for Graves’ orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(11):4291–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Stan MN, Garrity JA, Thapa P, Bradley EA, Bahn RS. Randomized Double-Blind. Placebo-controlled Trial of rituximab for treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Presentation in the 83rd annual meeting of the American Thyroid Association, San Juan; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Kapadia MK, Rubin PA. The emerging use of TNF-alpha inhibitors in orbital inflammatory disease. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2006;46(2):165–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Perros P, Weightman DR, Crombie AL, Kendall-Taylor P. Azathioprine in the treatment of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. Acta Endocrinol. 1990;122(1):8–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Onal H, Keskindemirci G, Adal E, Ersen A, Korkmaz O. Effects of selenium supplementation in the early stage of autoimmune thyroiditis in childhood: an open-label pilot study. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2012;25(7–8):639–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, 1124 West Carson St., RB-1, Torrance, CA, 90502, USA

    Andrew G. Gianoukakis M.D.

  2. Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, 1000 W. Carson St., 446, Torrance, CA, 90508-0446, USA

    Teeranun Jirajariyavej M.D.

  3. Department of Pediatrics, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, 1124 West Carson St., RB-1, 446, Torrance, CA, 90502, USA

    Rebecca A. Hicks M.D. & Jennifer K. Yee M.D.

Authors
  1. Andrew G. Gianoukakis M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Teeranun Jirajariyavej M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rebecca A. Hicks M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jennifer K. Yee M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andrew G. Gianoukakis M.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Eye Plastic, Orbital, and Facial Cosmetic Surgery, Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

    Raymond S. Douglas

  2. Division of Eye Plastic, Orbital, and Facial Cosmetic Surgery, Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

    Allison N. McCoy

  3. Division of Eye Plastic, Orbital, and Facial Cosmetic Surgery, Kellogg Eye Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

    Shivani Gupta

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Gianoukakis, A.G., Jirajariyavej, T., Hicks, R.A., Yee, J.K. (2015). Pregnancy and Childhood Thyroid Eye Disease. In: Douglas, R., McCoy, A., Gupta, S. (eds) Thyroid Eye Disease. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1746-4_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1746-4_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-1745-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-1746-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation