Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Neck Injury Biomechanics

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Accidental Injury

Abstract

This chapter summarizes the research on the biomechanical responses of the neck in a form that will be useful in design of protective systems and in the development of societal strategies to reduce the number of cervical spine injuries. Neck injuries are described in detail and injury mechanisms are explained. Accidents that involve neck injuries are analyzed. Real-life neck injuries are presented and laboratory results are synthesized to provide a rational basis for understanding neck injury. In order to maintain a reasonable scope, we restrict our discussion to severe fractures – those with a high probability of spinal cord injury. Low AIS injuries, such as whiplash, sprains and strains are left to other sources.

Most of what we know about catastrophic neck injury comes from two sources: clinical studies including accident reconstruction, and cadaver studies. In the last 30 years, the field of biomechanics has made significant gains in understanding the complex dynamics that accompany both head-impact neck injury and inertial neck injury. Cervical injury mechanisms involve a wide range of loading modes with various combinations of force and concurrent bending moment. Using the historical concepts of excessive head motion as a cause of neck injury frequently leads to paradoxical and incorrect conclusions regarding neck injury mechanism. In contrast, when the neck is viewed as a mechanical structure, whose injury is a consequence of the deformations of a segmented beam column bounded by two large masses, the neck’s mechanical behavior and the resulting traumatic injuries can be more readily explained. That is, by considering the effects of buckling and examining the forces and moments that act at the level of injury in the spine at the instant of injury, the mechanisms of each injury become clear and rational.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Berkowitz M (1998) Spinal cord injury: an analysis of medical and social costs. Demos Medical Publishing, New York

    Google Scholar 

  2. Huelke DF, Moffat EA, Mendelsohn RA, Melvin JW (1979) Cervical fractures and fracture dislocations – an overview. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 790131. pp 462–468

    Google Scholar 

  3. Burke DC (1973) Spinal cord injuries and seat belts. Med J Aust 2:801–806

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Epstein BS, Epstein JA, Jones MD (1978) Lap-sash three point seat belt fractures of the cervical spine. Spine 3(3):189–193

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Gögler H, Athanasiadis S, Adomeit D (1979) Fatal cervical dislocation related to wearing a seat belt: a case report. Injury 10(3):196–200

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Horsch JD, Schneider DC, Kroell CK, Raasch F (1979) Response of belt restrained subjects in simulated lateral impact

    Google Scholar 

  7. Huelke DF, Mackay GM, Morris A, Bradford M (1992) Non-head impact cervical spine injuries in frontal car crashes to lap-shoulder belted occupants

    Google Scholar 

  8. Nyquist GW, Begeman PC, King AI, Mertz HJ (1980) Correlation of field injuries and GM Hybrid III dummy responses for Lap-Shoulder Belt Restraint. J Biomech Eng 102:103–109

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Marsh J, Scott R, Melvin J (1975) Injury patterns by restraint usage in 1973 and 1974 passenger cars. In: 19th annual conference of the American association for automotive medicine

    Google Scholar 

  10. Schmidt G, Kallieris D, Barz J, Mattern R, Klaiber J (1975) Neck and thoray tolerance levels of belt-protected occupants in head-on collisions, vol SAE# 751149

    Google Scholar 

  11. Taylor TK, Nade S, Bannister JH (1976) Seat belt fractures of the cervical spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br 58(3):328–331

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Shields C Jr, Fox J, Stauffer E (1978) Cervical cord injuries in sports. Phys Sports Med 6(9):71–76

    Google Scholar 

  13. Otis J, Burstein A, Torg J (1991) Mechanisms and pathomechanics of athletic injuries to the cervical spine. Athletic injuries to the head, neck, and face. Mosby–Year Book Inc., St. Louis, pp 438–456

    Google Scholar 

  14. Torg JS (1985) Epidemiology, pathomechanics, and prevention of athletic injuries to the cervical spine. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17(3):295–303

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Torg JS, Sennett B, Pavlov H, Leventhal MR, Glasgow SG (1993) Spear tackler’s spine an entity precluding participation in tackle football and collision activities that expose the cervical spine to axial energy inputs. Am J Sports Med 21(5):640–649

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Torg JS, Truex R Jr, Quedenfeld T, Burstein AH, Spealman A, Nichols C (1979) The national football head and neck injury registry: report and conclusions 1978. JAMA 241:1477–1479

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Torg JS, Vegso JJ, O’Neill MJ, Sennett B (1990) The epidemiologic, pathologic, biomechanical, and cinematographic analysis of football-induced cervical spine trauma. Am J Sports Med 18(1):50–57

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Torg JS, Vegso JJ, Sennett B, Das M (1985) The national football head and neck injury registry. 14-year report on cervical quadriplegia, 1971 through 1984. JAMA 254(24):3439–3443

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Schneider RC (1973) Head and neck injuries in football: mechanisms, treatment, and prevention. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  20. Hodgson VR, Thomas LM (1980) Mechanisms of cervical spine injury during impact to the protected head. In: Proceedings of the 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference, pp 17–42

    Google Scholar 

  21. Mertz HJ, Hodgson VR, Thomas LM, Nyquist GW (1978) An assessment of compressive neck loads under injury-producing conditions. Phys Sportsmed 6(11):95–106

    Google Scholar 

  22. Virgin H (1980) Cineradiographic study of football helmets and the cervical spine. Am J Sports Med 8(5):310–317

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kewalramani LS, Taylor RG (1975) Injuries to the cervical spine from diving accidents. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 15(2):130–142

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Albrand O, Walter J (1975) Underwater deceleration curves in relation to injuries from diving. Surg Neurol 4(5):461

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. McElhaney JH, Snyder RG, States JD, Gabrielsen MA (1979) Biomechanical analysis of swimming pool injuries. Soc Automot Eng 790137:47–53

    Google Scholar 

  26. Gabrielsen MA (1990) Diving injuries: the etiology of 486 case studies with recommendations for needed action. NOVA University Press, Ft. Lauderdale

    Google Scholar 

  27. Reid D, Saboe L (1989) Spine fractures in winter sports. Sports Med 7(6):393–399

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Sekhon LHS, Fehlings MG (2001) Epidemiology, demographics, and pathophysiology of acute spinal cord injury. Spine 26(24S):S2–S12

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Kiwerski J (1991) The influence of the mechanism of cervical spine injury on the degree of the spinal cord lesion. Spinal Cord 29(8):531–536

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Bailes JE, Herman JM, Quigley MR, Cerullo LJ, Meyer PR Jr (1990) Diving injuries of the cervical spine. Surg Neurol 34(3):155–158

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Bedbrook G (1979) Spinal injuries with tetraplegia and paraplegia. J Bone Joint Surg Br 61(3):267

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Portnoy HD, McElhaney HJ, Melvin JW, Croissant PD (1972) Mechanism of cervical spine injury in auto accidents. In: Proceedings of the 15th annual conference of the American association for automotive medicine, pp 58–83

    Google Scholar 

  33. Braakman R, Vinken PJ (1967) Unilateral facet interlocking in the lower cervical spine. J Bone Joint Surg 49B(2):249–257

    Google Scholar 

  34. Bohlman H (1979) Acute fractures and dislocations of the cervical spine. An analysis of three hundred hospitalized patients and review of the literature. J Bone Joint Surg 61(8):1119

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Foster J, Kerrigan JR, Nightingale RW, Funk JR, Cormier J, Bose D, Sochor M, Ridella SA, Ash J, Crandall JR (2012) Analysis of cervical spine injuries and mechanisms for CIREN rollover crashes. In: Proceedings of the 2012 IRCOBI Conference, Dublin

    Google Scholar 

  36. Yoganandan N, Haffner M, Maiman DJ, Nichols H, Pintar FA, Jentzen J, Weinshel SS, Larson SJ, Sances A (1989) Epidemiology and injury biomechanics of motor vehicle related trauma to the human spine. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash conference, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  37. Jefferson G (1920) Fracture of the atlas vertebra. Br J Surg 7:407

    Google Scholar 

  38. White AA, Panjabi MM (1990) Clinical biomechanics of the spine. JB Lippincott Company, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  39. Jefferson G (1927) Remarks on fractures of the first cervical vertebra. Br Med J 2(3473):153

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Rayes M, Mittal M, Rengachary SS, Mittal S (2011) Hangman’s fracture: a historical and biomechanical perspective. J Neurosurg Spine 14(2): 198–208

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Braakman R, Penning L (1971) Causes of spinal lesions. In: Injuries of the cervical spine. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  42. Harris J Jr, Edeiken-Monroe B, Kopaniky D (1986) A practical classification of acute cervical spine injuries. Orthop Clin North Am 17(1):15

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Levine AM, Edwards CC (1985) The management of traumatic spondylolisthesis of the axis. J Bone Joint Surg 67A(2):217–226

    Google Scholar 

  44. Anderson LD, D’Alonzo RT (1974) Fractures of the odontoid process of the axis. J Bone Joint Surg 56(8):1663–1674

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Werne S (1957) Studies in spontaneous atlas dislocation. Acta Orthop Scand Suppl 23:1

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Fielding JW, Cochran GVANB, LAWSING JF III, Hohl M (1974) Tears of the transverse ligament of the atlas a clinical and biomechanical study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 56(8):1683–1691

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Montane I, Eismont FJ, Green BA (1991) Traumatic occipitoatlantal dislocation. Spine 16(2):112

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Bucholz RW, Burkhead WZ (1979) The pathological anatomy of fatal atlanto-occipital dislocations. J Bone Joint Surg Am 61(2):248–250

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Myers BS, Nightingale RW (1999) Review: the dynamics of near vertex head impact and its role in injury prevention and the complex clinical presentation of basicranial and cervical spine injury. Traffic Inj Prev 1(1):67–82

    Google Scholar 

  50. Torg JS, Pavlov H (1991) Axial load teardrop fracture. In: Athletic injuries to the head, neck and face. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  51. Babcock JL (1976) Cervical spine injuries. Diagn Classif Arch Surg 111(6):646–651

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Norton WL (1962) Fractures and dislocations of the cervical spine. J Bone Joint Surg Am 44(1):115–139

    Google Scholar 

  53. Schneider RC, Kahn EA (1956) Chronic neurological sequelae of acute trauma to the spine and spinal cord the significance of the acute-flexion or tear-drop fracture-dislocation of the cervical spine. J Bone Joint Surg 38(5):985–997

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Whitley JE, Forsyth H (1960) The classification of cervical spine injuries. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 83:633

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Allen BL, Ferguson RL, Lehmann TR, O’Brien RP (1982) A mechanistic classification of closed indirect fractures and dislocations of the lower cervical spine. Spine 7(1):1–27

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Dolan K (1977) Cervical spine injuries below the axis. Radiol Clin North Am 15(2):247–259

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Moffatt C, Advani S, Lin CJ (1971) Analytical and experimental investigations of human spine flexure

    Google Scholar 

  58. Myers BS, Winkelstein BA (1995) Epidemiology, classification, mechanism, and tolerance of human cervical spine injuries. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 23(5–6):307–409

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. McElhaney JH, Paver JG, McCrackin HJ, Maxwell GM (1983) Cervical spine compression responses. In: Proceedings of the 27th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 831615. pp 163–177

    Google Scholar 

  60. Nusholtz GS, Huelke DE, Lux P, Alem NM, Montalvo F (1983) Cervical spine injury mechanisms. In: Proceedings of the 27th Stapp Car Crash Conference, pp 179–197

    Google Scholar 

  61. Nightingale RW, McElhaney JH, Richardson WJ, Best TM, Myers BS (1996) Experimental impact injury to the cervical spine: relating motion of the head and the mechanism of injury. J Bone Joint Surg Am 78(3):412–421

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Culver RH, Bender M, Melvin JW (1978) Mechanisms, tolerances, and responses obtained under dynamic superior-inferior head impact. UM-HSRI-78-21

    Google Scholar 

  63. Nusholtz GS, Melvin JW, Huelke DF, Alem NM, Blank JG (1981) Response of the cervical spine to superior-inferior head impact. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference, pp 197–237

    Google Scholar 

  64. Yoganandan N, Sances A, Maiman DJ, Myklebust JB, Pech P, Larson SJ (1986) Experimental spinal injuries with vertical impact. Spine 11(9):855–860

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Nightingale RW, McElhaney JH, Richardson WJ, Myers BS (1996) Dynamic responses of the head and cervical spine to axial impact loading. J Biomech 29(3):307–318

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Bauze RJ, Ardran GM (1978) Experimental production of forward dislocation of the human cervical spine. J Bone Joint Surg 60-B:239–245

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Myers BS, McElhaney JH, Richardson WJ, Nightingale RW, Doherty BJ (1991) The influence of end condition on human cervical spine injury mechanisms. In: Proceedings of the 35th Stapp Car Crash Conference, 912915, pp 391–400

    Google Scholar 

  68. Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Sances A Jr, Reinartz J, Larson SJ (1991) Strength and kinematic response of dynamic cervical spine injuries. Spine 16(10): S511–S517

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Pesigan M, Voo L, Cusick JF, Maiman DJ, Sances A Jr (1995) Dynamic characteristics of the human cervical spine. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 95722. pp 195–202

    Google Scholar 

  70. Nightingale RW, McElhaney JH, Camacho DL, Winkelstein BA, Myers BS (1997) The dynamic responses of the cervical spine: the role of buckling, end conditions, and tolerance in compressive impacts. In: 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference Proceedings 41 (973344), pp 451–471

    Google Scholar 

  71. Toomey DE, Mason MJ, Hardy WN, Yang KH, Kopacz JM, Van Ee C (2009) Exploring the role of lateral bending postures and asymmetric loading on cervical spine compression responses. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2009 international mechanical engineering Congress & exposition, ASME, Lake Buena Vista

    Google Scholar 

  72. Saari A, Itshayek E, Cripton P (2011) Cervical spinal cord deformation during simulated head-first impact injuries. J Biomech 44(14):2565–2571

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Ivancic PC (2012) Head-first impact with head protrusion causes noncontiguous injuries of the cadaveric cervical spine. Clin J Sport Med 22(5):390–396

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Nightingale RW, Camacho DL, Armstrong AJ, Robinette JJ, Myers BS (1997) Cervical spine buckling: the effects of vertebral mass and loading rate. In: 1997 Advances in bioengineering, ASME IMECE, pp 231–232

    Google Scholar 

  75. Pintar FA, Sances A, Yoganandan N, Reinartz J, Maiman DJ, Unger G, Cusick JF, Larson SJ (1990) Biodynamics of the total human cadaveric cervical spine. In: Proceedings 34th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 902309. pp 55–72

    Google Scholar 

  76. Maiman DJ Jr, Sances A, Myklebust JB, Larson SJ, Houterman C, Chilbert M, El-Ghatit AZ (1983) Compression injuries of the cervical spine: a biomechanical analysis. Neurosurgery 13(3):254–260

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Pesigan M, Reinartz J Jr, Sances A, Cusick JF (1995) Cervical vertebral strain measurements under axial and eccentric loading. J Biomech Eng 117(4):474–478

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Nightingale RW, Camacho DL, Armstrong AJ, Robinette JJ, Myers BS (2000) Inertial properties and loading rates affect buckling modes and injury mechanisms in the cervical spine. J Biomech 32(2):191–198

    Google Scholar 

  79. Beatson T (1963) Fractures and dislocations of the cervical spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br 45(1):21

    Google Scholar 

  80. Roaf R (1960) A study of the mechanics of spinal injuries. J Bone Joint Surg Br 42(4):810–823

    Google Scholar 

  81. Roaf R (1963) Lateral flexion injuries of the cervical spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br 45:36–38

    Google Scholar 

  82. Torg JS, Sennett B, Vegso JJ, Pavlov H (1991) Axial loading injuries to the middle cervical spine segment. Am J Sports Med 19(1):6–20

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Kuster D, Gibson A, Abboud R, Drew T (2012) Mechanisms of cervical spine injury in Rugby Union: a systematic review of the literature. Br J Sports Med 46:550–4

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Dennison CR, Macri EM, Cripton PA (2012) Mechanisms of cervical spine injury in rugby union: is it premature to abandon hyperflexion as the main mechanism underpinning injury? Br J Sports Med 46(8):545–549

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Michaelson J, Forman J, Kent R, Kuppa S (2008) Rear seat occupant safety: kinematics and injury of PMHS restrained by a standard 3-point belt in frontal crashes. Stapp Car Crash J 52:295

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Mertz HJ, Patrick LM (1971) Strength and response of the human neck. In: Proceedings 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference, . vol 710855. pp 207–254

    Google Scholar 

  87. Sances A, Myklebust J, Cusick JF, Weber R, Houterman C, Larson SJ, Walsh P, Chilbert M, Prieto T, Zyvoloski M, Ewing C, Thomas D, Saltzberg B (1981) Experimental studies of brain and neck injury. In: Proceedings of the 25th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 811032. pp 149–194

    Google Scholar 

  88. Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Maiman DJ, Cusick JF, Sances A Jr, Walsh PR (1996) Human head-neck biomechanics under axial tension. Med Eng Phys 18(4):289–294

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Van Ee CA, Nightingale RW, Camacho DL, Chancey VC, Knaub KE, Sun EA, Myers BS (2000) Tensile properties of the human muscular and ligamentous cervical spine. Stapp Car Crash J 44:85–102

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Chancey VC, Nightingale RW, Van Ee CA, Knaub KE, Myers BS (2003) Improved estimation of human neck tensile tolerance: reducing the range of reported tolerance using anthropometrically correct muscles and optimizing physiologic initial conditions. Stapp Car Crash J 47:135–154

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Dibb AT, Nightingale RW, Chancey VC, Van Ee AC, Luck JF, Fronheiser LE, Myers BS (2009) The human cervical spine in tension: strength, stiffness and the effects of end conditions. J Biomech Eng 131(8)

    Google Scholar 

  92. Kleinberger M, Summers L (1997) Mechanisms of injuries for adults and children resulting from airbag interaction. In: AAAM proceedings of the 41st annual conference

    Google Scholar 

  93. Maxeiner H, Hahn M (1997) Airbag-induced lethal cervical trauma. J Trauma 42(6):1148–1151

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Perez J, Palmatier T (1996) Air bag-related fatality in a short, forward-positioned driver. Ann Emerg Med 28(6):722–724

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Willis BK, Smith JL, Falkner LD, Vernon DD, Walker ML (1996) Fatal air bag mediated craniocervical trauma in a child. Pediatr Neurosurg 24(6):323–327

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Winston FK, Reed R (1996) Airbags and children: results of a national highway traffic safety administration special investigation into actual crashes. In: 40th Stapp Car Crash Conference Proceedings P-305, vol 962438. pp 383–389

    Google Scholar 

  97. Brown DK, Roe EJ, Henry TE (1995) A fatality associated with the deployment of an automobile airbag. J Trauma 39(6):1204–1206

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Moore KR, Frank EH (1995) Traumatic atlantoaxial rotatory subluxation and dislocation. Spine 20:1928–1928

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Goel VK, Winterbottom JM, Schulte KR, Chang H, Gilbertson LG, Pudgil AG, Gwon JK (1990) Ligamentous laxity across C0-C1-C2 complex. Axial torque-rotation characteristics until failure. Spine 15(10):990–996

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Myers BS, McElhaney JH, Doherty BJ, Paver JG, Gray L (1991) The role of torsion in cervical spine trauma. Spine 16(8):870–874

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Myers BS, McElhaney JH, Doherty BJ, Paver JG, Ladd TP, Nightingale RW, Gray L (1989) Responses of the human cervical spine to torsion. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 892437. pp 215–222

    Google Scholar 

  102. Wismans J, Spenny CH (1983) Performance requirements for mechanical necks in lateral flexion. In: Proceedings of the 27th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 831613

    Google Scholar 

  103. Winkelstein BA, Nightingale RW, Myers BS (2000) A biomechanical investigation of the cervical facet capsule and its role in whiplash injury. Spine 25(10):1238–1246

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Gosch HH, Gooding E, Schneider RC (1972) An experimental study of cervical spine and cord injuries. J Trauma 12(7):570–576

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Rogers WA (1957) Fractures and dislocations of the cervical spine an end-result study. J Bone Joint Surg 39(2):341–376

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Mertz HJ, Patrick LM (1967) Investigation of the kinematics and kinetics of whiplash. In: Proceedings of the 11th Stapp Car Crash Conference 11, 670919

    Google Scholar 

  107. Bass C, Donnellan L, Salzar R, Lucas S, Folk B, Davis M, Rafaels K, Planchak C, Meyerhoff K, Ziemba A (2006) A new neck injury criterion in combined vertical/frontal crashes with head supported mass. In: 2006 international IRCOBI conference on the biomechanics of impact

    Google Scholar 

  108. Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Maiman DJ (2010) Lower cervical spine loading in frontal sled tests using inverse dynamics: potential applications for lower neck injury criteria. Stapp Car Crash J 54:133

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Taylor AR (1951) The mechanism of injury to the spinal cord in the neck without damage to the vertebral column. J Bone Joint Surg Br 33(4):543–547

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Barnes R (1948) Paraplegia in cervical spine injuries. J Bone Joint Surg Br 30(2):234–244

    Google Scholar 

  111. Schneider RC, Thompson JM, Bebin J (1958) The syndrome of acute central cervical spinal cord injury. Br Med J 21(3):216

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Gadd CW, Culver CC, Nahum AM (1971) A study of responses and tolerances of the neck. In: Proceedings of the 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 710856

    Google Scholar 

  113. Myers BS, McElhaney JH, Richardson WJ, Nightingale RW, Doherty BJ (1991) The influence of end condition on human cervical spine injury mechanisms. Soc Automot Eng J Passeng Cars 6(100):2040–2048

    Google Scholar 

  114. Nightingale RW, Winkelstein BA, Knaub KE, Myers BS (2002) Comparative bending strengths and structural properties of the upper and lower cervical spine. J Biomech 35(6):725–732

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Nightingale RW, Chancey VC, Ottaviano D, Luck JF, Tran LN, Prange MT, Myers BS (2007) Flexion and extension structrural properties and strengths for male cervical spine segments. J Biomech 40(3):535–542

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Goel VK, Clark CR, Gallaes K, Liu YK (1988) Moment-rotation relationships of the ligamentous occipito-atlanto-axial complex. J Biomech 21(8):673–680

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Panjabi M, Dvorak J, Crisco JJ 3rd, Oda T, Hilibrand A, Grob D (1991) Flexion, extension, and lateral bending of the upper cervical spine in response to alar ligament transections. J Spinal Disord 4(2):157–167

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Voo LM, Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Liu YK (1998) Static and dynamic bending responses of the human cervical spine. J Biomech Eng 120(6):693–696

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Wheeldon JA, Pintar F, Knowles S, Yoganandan N (2006) Experimental flexion/extension data corridors for validation of finite element models of the young, normal cervical spine. J Biomech 39:375–380

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Doherty BJ, Heggeness MH, Esses SI (1993) A biomechanical study of odontoid fracture and fracture fixation. Spine 18(2):178–184

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Blockey N, Purser D (1956) Fractures of the odontoid process of the axis. J Bone Joint Surg Br 38(4):794–817

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Cheng R, Yang KH, Levine RS, King AI, Morgan R (1982) Injuries to the cervical spine caused by a distributed frontal load to the chest. In: Proceedings of the 26th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 821155

    Google Scholar 

  123. Clemens HJ, Burow K (1972) Experimental investigation on injury mechanism of cervical spine at frontal and rear-front vehicle impacts. In: Proceedings of the 16th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 720960

    Google Scholar 

  124. Maiman D, Yoganandan N (1989) Biomechanics of cervical spine trauma. In: Congress of neurological surgeons, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  125. Nightingale RW, Winkelstein BA, Van Ee CA, Myers BS (1998) Injury mechanisms in the pediatric cervical spine during out-of-position airbag deployments. In: 42nd annual proceedings: association for the advancement of automotive medicine, pp 153–164

    Google Scholar 

  126. Ryan MD, Henderson JJ (1992) The epidemiology of fractures and fracture-dislocations of the cervical spine. Injury 23(1):38–40

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Ngo B, Hoffman J, Mower W (2000) Cervical spine injury in the very elderly. Emerg Radiol 7(5):287–291

    Google Scholar 

  128. Hollands CM, Winston FK, Stafford PW, Shochat SJ (1996) Severe head injury caused by airbag deployment. J Trauma 41(5):920–922

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Willis BK, Smith JL, Falkner LD, Vernon DD, Walker ML (1996) Fatal air bag mediated craniocervical trauma in a child. Pediatr Neurosurg 24(6):323–327

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Hopper RH, McElhaney JH, Myers BS (1994) Mandibular and basilar skull fracture tolerance. In: Proceedings of the 38th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 942213. pp 123–131

    Google Scholar 

  131. Nightingale RW, Richardson WJ, Myers BS (1997) The effects of padded surfaces on the risk for cervical spine injury. Spine 22(10):2380–2387

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Mower W, Hoffman JR, Zucker M (2000) Odontoid fractures following blunt trauma. Emerg Radiol 7(1):3–6

    Google Scholar 

  133. Kallieris D, Schmidt G (1990) Neck response and injury assessment using cadavers and the US-SID for far-side lateral impacts of rear seat occupants with inboard anchored shoulder Belts. In: Proceedings of the Stapp Car Crash Conference

    Google Scholar 

  134. McIntosh AS, Kallieris D, Frechede B (2007) Neck injury tolerance under inertial loads in side impacts. Accid Anal Prev 39(2):326–333

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Yoganandan N, Pintar FA, Maiman DJ, Philippens M, Wismans J (2009) Neck forces and moments and head accelerations in side impact. Traffic Inj Prev 10(1):51–57

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Foust DR, Chaffin DB, RG RGS, Baum JK (1973) Cervical range of motion and dynamic response and strength of cervical muscles. In: Proceedings of the 17th Stapp Car Crash Conference, pp 285–308

    Google Scholar 

  137. Szabo TJ, Welcher JB (1996) Human subject kinematics and electromyographic activity during low speed rear impacts. In: Proceedings of the 40th Stapp Car Crash Conference

    Google Scholar 

  138. Siegmund GP, Sanderson DJ, Myers BS, Inglis JT (2003) Awareness affects the response of human subjects exposed to a single whiplash-like perturbation. Spine 28(7):671–679

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Siegmund GP, Sanderson DJ, Myers BS, Timothy Inglis J (2003) Rapid neck muscle adaptation alters the head kinematics of aware and unaware subjects undergoing multiple whiplash-like perturbations. J Biomech 36(4):473–482

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Valsamis MP (1994) Pathology of trauma. Neurosurg Clin N Am 5(1):175–183

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Dibb AT, Nightingale RW, Chancey VC, Fronheiser LE, Tran LN, Ottaviano D, Myers BS (2006) Comparative structural neck responses of the THOR-NT, Hybrid III, and human in tension and bending. Stapp Car Crash J 50:567–583

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Kallieris D, Mattern R, Miltner E, Schmidt G, Stein K (1991) Considerations for a neck injury criterion. In: Proceedings of the 35th Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 912916

    Google Scholar 

  143. Van Ee CA, Chasse AL, Myers BS (1998) The effect of postmortem time and freezer storage on the mechanical properties of skeletal muscle. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol submitted

    Google Scholar 

  144. De Jager M, Sauren A, Thunnissen J, Wismans J (1996) A global and a detailed mathematical model for head-neck dynamics. In: Proceedings of the 40th Stapp Car Crash Conference

    Google Scholar 

  145. van der Horst MJ, Thunnessen JGM, Happee R, van Haaster RMHP, Wismans JSHM (1997) The influence of muscle activity on head-neck response during impact. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference, vol 973346. pp 487–507

    Google Scholar 

  146. Brolin K, Halldin P, Leijonhufvud I (2005) The effect of muscle activation on neck response. Traffic Inj Prev 6(1):67–76

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Dibb AT, Cox CA, Nightingale RW, Luck JF, Cutcliffe HC, Myers BS, Arbogast K, Bass CR (2013) Importance of muscle activations for biofidelic pediatric neck response in computational models. In: Paper presented at the 23rd international technical conference on the enhanced safety of vehicles, Seoul

    Google Scholar 

  148. van der Horst M (2002) Human head neck response in frontal, lateral and rear end impact loading: modelling and validation. Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven

    Google Scholar 

  149. Bohlman H (1973) Correlative pathology and biomechanics of craniospinal injuries: a post mortem study of fifty fatal cases and a clinical review of 300 treated cases. In: Proceedings of the international research council on the biomechanics of injury conference, 1973. International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury

    Google Scholar 

  150. Levine AM, Edwards CC (1991) Fractures of the atlas. J Bone Joint Surg 73(5):680–691

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Shear P, Hugenholtz H, Richard MT, Russel NA, Peterson EW, Benoit BG, DaSilva VF (1988) Multiple noncontiguous fractures of the cervical spine. J Trauma 28(5):655–659

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Panjabi MM, Cholewicki J, Nibu K, Grauer J, Babat LB, Dvorak J (1998) Critical load of the human cervical spine. Clin Biomech 13(1):11–17

    Google Scholar 

  153. Casper R (1980) The viscoelastic behavior of the human intervertebral disc. Phd Thesis

    Google Scholar 

  154. Kaplan F, Hayes W, Keaveny T, Boskey A, Einhorn T, Iannotti J (1994) Form and function of bone. In: Orthopaedic basic science. pp 127–185

    Google Scholar 

  155. Kazarian L, Graves GA Jr (1977) Compressive strength characteristics of the human vertebral centrum. Spine 2(1):1

    Google Scholar 

  156. Yoganandan N, Pintar F, Butler J, Reinartz J, Sances A Jr, Larson SJ (1989) Dynamic response of human cervical spine ligaments. Spine 14(10): 1102–1110

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Chang H, Gilbertson LG, Goel VK, Winterbottom JM, Clark CR, Patwardhan A (1992) Dynamic response of the occipito–atlanto–axial (C0‐C1‐C2) complex in right axial rotation. J Orthop Res 10(3):446–453

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Voo LM (1998) Effect of age and loading rate on human cervical spine injury threshold. Spine 23(18):1957–1962

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Kazarian L (1981) Injuries to the human spinal column: biomechanics and injury classification. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 9:297–352

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Torg J, Sennett B, Vegso J (1987) Spinal injury at the level of the third and fourth cervical vertebrae resulting from the axial loading mechanism: an analysis and classification. Clin Sports Med 6(1):159

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Nahum A, Gatts J, Gadd C, Danforth J (1968) Impact tolerance of the skull and face. In: SAE transactions #680785. pp 631–645

    Google Scholar 

  162. Paine RR, Godfrey LR (1997) The scaling of skeletal microanatomy in non-human primates. J Zool 241:803–821

    Google Scholar 

  163. Carter JW, Mirza SK, Tencer AF, Ching RP (2000) Canal geometry changes associated with axial compressive cervical spine fracture. Spine 25(1):46

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Alem NM, Nusholtz GS, Melvin JW (1984) Head and neck response to axial impacts. In: Proceedings of the 28th Stapp Car Crash Conference, 1984. vol 841667. pp 275–288

    Google Scholar 

  165. Pintar FA, Yoganandan N, Sances A, Reinartz J, Larson SJ, Harris G (1989) Kinematic and anatomical analysis of the human cervical spinal column under axial loading. In: Proceedings of 33rd Stapp Car Crash Conference, 1989. vol 892436. pp 987–1010

    Google Scholar 

  166. Yoganandan N Jr, Sances A, Pintar F (1989) Biomechanical evaluation of axial compressive responses of human cadaveric and manikin necks. J Biomech Eng 111(1):250–255

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. McElhaney JH, Doherty BJ, Paver JG, Myers BS, Gray L (1988) Combined bending and axial loading responses of the human cervical spine. In: Proceeding of 32nd Stapp Car Crash Conference, 1988. vol 881709. pp 21–28

    Google Scholar 

  168. Nightingale RW, Myers BS (1997) The effects of padding on the risk for cervical spine injury. In: 9th annual meeting of the federation of spine associations, 1997

    Google Scholar 

  169. Hu J, Yang KH, Chou CC, King AI (2008) A numerical investigation of factors affecting cervical spine injuries during rollover crashes. Spine 33(23):2529–2535

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Camacho DLA, Nightingale RW, Myers BS (1999) Surface friction in near-vertex head and neck impact increases the risk of injury. J Biomech 3(32):293–301

    Google Scholar 

  171. Camacho DLA, Nightingale RW, Myers BS (2001) The influence of surface padding properties on head and neck injury risk. J Biomech Eng 123:432–439

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Aare M, Halldin P (2003) A new laboratory rig for evaluating helmets subject to oblique impacts. Traffic Inj Prev 4(3):240–248

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Oxland TR, Bhatnagar T, Choo AM, Dvorak MF, Tetzlaff W, Cripton PA (2011) Biomechanical aspects of spinal cord injury. Neural Tissue Biomech 3:159–180

    Google Scholar 

  174. Finan JD, Nightingale RW, Myers BS (2008) Experimental investigation of a helmet modification designed to mitigate head and neck injury. Traffic Inj Prev 9(5):483–488

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Hadley M, Sonntag V, Rakate H, Murphy A (1989) The infant whiplash-shake injury syndrome: a clinical and pathological study. Neurosurgery 24(4):536–540

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Huelke DF, Mendelsohn RA, States JD, Melvin JW (1978) Cervical fractures and fracture-dislocations sustained without head impact. J Trauma 18(7):533–538

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Kupferschmid JP, Weaver ML, Raves JJ, Diamond DL (1989) Thoracic spine injuries in victims of motorcycle accidents. J Trauma 29(5):593

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Heck JF, Clarke KS, Peterson TR, Torg JS, Weis MP (2004) National Athletic Trainers’ Association position statement: head-down contact and spearing in tackle football. J Athl Train 39(1):101

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. CPSC (2009) NEISS: National Electronic Injury Surveillance System. US Consumer Product Safety Commission

    Google Scholar 

  180. Gabrielsen MA, McElhaney J, O’Brien RF (2001) Diving injuries: research findings and recommendations for reducing catastrophic injuries. Informa HealthCare

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA

    Roger W. Nightingale Ph.D. & Barry S. Myers M.D., Ph.D.

  2. Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA

    Narayan Yoganandan Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Roger W. Nightingale Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Barry S. Myers M.D., Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Narayan Yoganandan Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Roger W. Nightingale Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA

    Narayan Yoganandan

  2. School of Medicine, University of California at San Diego, San Diego, USA

    Alan M. Nahum

  3. Tandelta Inc., Ann Arbor, USA

    John W. Melvin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Nightingale, R.W., Myers, B.S., Yoganandan, N. (2015). Neck Injury Biomechanics. In: Yoganandan, N., Nahum, A., Melvin, J. (eds) Accidental Injury. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1732-7_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1732-7_11

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-1731-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-1732-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation