Abstract
It has long been recognized by oncologists and families of cancer patients that metastatic cancers are considerably different from their primary cancer counterparts. Their growth, for example, tends to be more explosive (Weiss et al. 1986; Blomqvist et al. 1993; Oda et al. 2001; Klein 2009), easier to spread and more difficult to stop; yet, very little is understood about the differences between the biology of metastatic cancer and that of primary cancer. Current research efforts have mostly focused on understanding the mechanisms of metastatic processes by addressing questions like the following: What triggers cancer cells to spread? How do they circumvent the body’s defenses? and How does one prevent metastasis? In comparison, relatively little can be found in the literature about the unique biology of metastatic cancer. For example, the molecular and genetic mechanisms responsible for driving the more explosive growth of metastatic cancers are virtually unknown. This may have reflected a belief widely held by cancer researchers that metastatic cancer is a terminal illness and hence not much can be done to stop its progression once a cancer has metastasized, which may have influenced the priorities in studying the underlying biology of metastasis.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ahn J, Yuan Y, Parmigiani G et al. (2013) DeMix: deconvolution for mixed cancer transcriptomes using raw measured data. Bioinformatics 29: 1865-1871
Alison MR, Hunt T, Forbes SJ (2002) Minichromosome maintenance (MCM) proteins may be pre-cancer markers. Gut 50: 290-291
An SS, Kim J, Ahn K et al. (2009) Cell stiffness, contractile stress and the role of extracellular matrix. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 382: 697-703
Barrett T, Suzek TO, Troup DB et al. (2005) NCBI GEO: mining millions of expression profiles—database and tools. Nucleic acids research 33: D562-D566
Bertucci F, Salas S, Eysteries S et al. (2004) Gene expression profiling of colon cancer by DNA microarrays and correlation with histoclinical parameters. Oncogene 23: 1377-1391
Bittner M, Meltzer P, Chen Y et al. (2000) Molecular classification of cutaneous malignant melanoma by gene expression profiling. Nature 406: 536-540
Blomqvist C, Wiklund T, Tarkkanen M et al. (1993) Measurement of growth rate of lung metastases in 21 patients with bone or soft-tissue sarcoma. British journal of cancer 68: 414-417
Bruel A, Oxlund H (1996) Changes in biomechanical properties, composition of collagen and elastin, and advanced glycation endproducts of the rat aorta in relation to age. Atherosclerosis 127: 155-165
Buchwald H, O’Dea TJ, Menchaca HJ et al. (2000) Effect of plasma cholesterol on red blood cell oxygen transport. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 27: 951-955
Cao S, Zhang C, Liu C et al. (2014) Oxidized Cholesterol Plays a Key Role in Driving the Accelerated Growth of Metastatic Cancer. Unpublished results.
Chiang JY (2009) Bile acids: regulation of synthesis. J Lipid Res 50: 1955-1966
Condeelis J, Pollard JW (2006) Macrophages: obligate partners for tumor cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. Cell 124: 263-266
de Weille J, Fabre C, Bakalara N (2013) Oxysterols in cancer cell proliferation and death. Biochemical pharmacology 86: 154-160
Delaunay A, Gasull X, Salinas M et al. (2012) Human ASIC3 channel dynamically adapts its activity to sense the extracellular pH in both acidic and alkaline directions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109: 13124-13129
Denko NC (2008) Hypoxia, HIF1 and glucose metabolism in the solid tumour. Nature Reviews Cancer 8: 705-713
Dhanasekaran SM, Barrette TR, Ghosh D et al. (2001) Delineation of prognostic biomarkers in prostate cancer. Nature 412: 822-826
Fielding CJ, Fielding PE (1997) Intracellular cholesterol transport. Journal of lipid research 38: 1503-1521
Fisher RA (1921) On the probable error of a coefficient of correlation deduced from a small sample. Metron 1: 3-32
Galea AM, Brown AJ (2009a) Special relationship between sterols and oxygen: were sterols an adaptation to aerobic life? Free radical biology & medicine 47: 880-889
Galea AM, Brown AJ (2009b) Special relationship between sterols and oxygen: Were sterols an adaptation to aerobic life? Free Radical Bio Med 47: 880-889
Ginos MA, Page GP, Michalowicz BS et al. (2004) Identification of a Gene Expression Signature Associated with Recurrent Disease in Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Head and Neck. Cancer Research 64: 55-63
Halliwell B, Chirico S (1993) Lipid peroxidation: its mechanism, measurement, and significance. The American journal of clinical nutrition 57: 715S-724S
Hanahan D, Weinberg RA (2011) Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144: 646-674
Hao NB, Lu MH, Fan YH et al. (2012) Macrophages in tumor microenvironments and the progression of tumors. Clin Dev Immunol 2012: 948098
Hinz B (2009) Tissue stiffness, latent TGF-β1 activation, and mechanical signal transduction: implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of fibrosis. Current rheumatology reports 11: 120-126
Ho VH, Sly L (2009) Derivation and Characterization of Murine Alternatively Activated (M2) Macrophages. In: Reiner NE (ed) Macrophages and Dendritic Cells, vol 531. Methods in Molecular Biology™. Humana Press, New York. pp 173-185
Hughes AL, Todd BL, Espenshade PJ (2005) SREBP pathway responds to sterols and functions as an oxygen sensor in fission yeast. Cell 120: 831-842
Ingber DE (2006) Cellular mechanotransduction: putting all the pieces together again. FASEB journal: official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 20: 811-827
Ioannou YA (2001) Multidrug permeases and subcellular cholesterol transport. Nature reviews Molecular cell biology 2: 657-668
Kaspar JW, Niture SK, Jaiswal AK (2009) Nrf2:INrf2 (Keap1) signaling in oxidative stress. Free radical biology & medicine 47: 1304-1309
Klein CA (2009) Parallel progression of primary tumours and metastases. Nature reviews Cancer 9: 302-312
Koukourakis MI, Giatromanolaki A, Sivridis E et al. (2002) Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF1A and HIF2A), angiogenesis, and chemoradiotherapy outcome of squamous cell head-and-neck cancer. International Journal of Radiation Oncology* Biology* Physics 53: 1192-1202
Landemaine T, Jackson A, Bellahcene A et al. (2008) A six-gene signature predicting breast cancer lung metastasis. Cancer Res 68: 6092-6099
Lazar C, Meganck S, Taminau J et al. (2013) Batch effect removal methods for microarray gene expression data integration: a survey. Briefings in bioinformatics 14: 469-490
Levin ER (2003) Bidirectional signaling between the estrogen receptor and the epidermal growth factor receptor. Molecular endocrinology 17: 309-317
López-Revuelta A, Sánchez-Gallego JI, Hernández-Hernández A et al. (2006) Membrane cholesterol contents influence the protective effects of quercetin and rutin in erythrocytes damaged by oxidative stress. Chemico-biological interactions 161: 79-91
Mantovani A, Schioppa T, Porta C et al. (2006a) Role of tumor-associated macrophages in tumor progression and invasion. Cancer and Metastasis Reviews 25: 315-322
Mantovani A, Schioppa T, Porta C et al. (2006b) Role of tumor-associated macrophages in tumor progression and invasion. Cancer metastasis reviews 25: 315-322
Martinez FO, Helming L, Milde R et al. (2013) Genetic programs expressed in resting and IL-4 alternatively activated mouse and human macrophages: similarities and differences. Blood 121: e57-69
Minn AJ, Gupta GP, Siegel PM et al. (2005) Genes that mediate breast cancer metastasis to lung. Nature 436: 518-524
Murphy RC, Johnson KM (2008) Cholesterol, reactive oxygen species, and the formation of biologically active mediators. The Journal of biological chemistry 283: 15521-15525
Nelson ER, Wardell SE, Jasper JS et al. (2013) 27-Hydroxycholesterol links hypercholesterolemia and breast cancer pathophysiology. Science 342: 1094-1098
Ng MR, Brugge JS (2009) A Stiff Blow from the Stroma: Collagen Crosslinking Drives Tumor Progression. Cancer Cell 16: 455-457
Nguyen T, Nioi P, Pickett CB (2009) The Nrf2-antioxidant response element signaling pathway and its activation by oxidative stress. The Journal of biological chemistry 284: 13291-13295
O’Donnell RK, Kupferman M, Wei SJ et al. (2005) Gene expression signature predicts lymphatic metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Oncogene 24: 1244-1251
Oda T, Miyao N, Takahashi A et al. (2001) Growth rates of primary and metastatic lesions of renal cell carcinoma. International journal of urology: official journal of the Japanese Urological Association 8: 473-477
Onken MD, Worley LA, Ehlers JP et al. (2004) Gene expression profiling in uveal melanoma reveals two molecular classes and predicts metastatic death. Cancer research 64: 7205-7209
Orth M, Bellosta S (2012) Cholesterol: its regulation and role in central nervous system disorders. Cholesterol 2012: 292598
Oue N, Hamai Y, Mitani Y et al. (2004) Gene Expression Profile of Gastric Carcinoma Identification of Genes and Tags Potentially Involved in Invasion, Metastasis, and Carcinogenesis by Serial Analysis of Gene Expression. Cancer research 64: 2397-2405
Pani G, Galeotti T, Chiarugi P (2010) Metastasis: cancer cell’s escape from oxidative stress. Cancer metastasis reviews 29: 351-378
Peurala E, Koivunen P, Haapasaari KM et al. (2013) The prognostic significance and value of cyclin D1, CDK4 and p16 in human breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 15: R5
Qian BZ, Pollard JW (2010) Macrophage diversity enhances tumor progression and metastasis. Cell 141: 39-51
Ramaswamy S, Ross KN, Lander ES et al. (2003) A molecular signature of metastasis in primary solid tumors. Nat Genet 33: 49-54
Razandi M, Pedram A, Park ST et al. (2003) Proximal events in signaling by plasma membrane estrogen receptors. The Journal of biological chemistry 278: 2701-2712
Sokol CL, Barton GM, Farr AG et al. (2008) A mechanism for the initiation of allergen-induced T helper type 2 responses. Nat Immunol 9: 310-318
Stratford JK, Bentrem DJ, Anderson JM et al. (2010) A six-gene signature predicts survival of patients with localized pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. PLoS Med 7: e1000307
Subczynski WK, Hyde JS, Kusumi A (1989) Oxygen permeability of phosphatidylcholine–cholesterol membranes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 86: 4474-4478
Subramanian A, Tamayo P, Mootha VK et al. (2005a) Gene set enrichment analysis: A knowledge-based approach for interpreting genome-wide expression profiles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102: 15545-15550
Subramanian A, Tamayo P, Mootha VK et al. (2005b) Gene set enrichment analysis: a knowledge-based approach for interpreting genome-wide expression profiles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102: 15545-15550
Sukocheva O, Wadham C, Holmes A et al. (2006) Estrogen transactivates EGFR via the sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor Edg-3: the role of sphingosine kinase-1. The Journal of cell biology 173: 301-310
Thierry-Mieg D, Thierry-Mieg J (2006) AceView: a comprehensive cDNA-supported gene and transcripts annotation. Genome biology 7: S12
van ‘t Veer LJ, Dai H, van de Vijver MJ et al. (2002) Gene expression profiling predicts clinical outcome of breast cancer. Nature 415: 530-536
Van den Broeck A, Vankelecom H, Van Eijsden R et al. (2012) Molecular markers associated with outcome and metastasis in human pancreatic cancer. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 31: 68
Vesely MD, Kershaw MH, Schreiber RD et al. (2011) Natural innate and adaptive immunity to cancer. Annu Rev Immunol 29: 235-271
Waldmann R, Champigny G, Bassilana F et al. (1997) A proton-gated cation channel involved in acid-sensing. Nature 386(6621):173-177
Wang Y, Klijn JG, Zhang Y et al. (2005) Gene-expression profiles to predict distant metastasis of lymph-node-negative primary breast cancer. The Lancet 365: 671-679
Weiss L, Grundmann E, Torhorst J et al. (1986) Haematogenous metastatic patterns in colonic carcinoma: An analysis of 1541 necropsies. The Journal of Pathology 150: 195-203
Wheeler LW, Lents NH, Baldassare JJ (2008) Cyclin A-CDK activity during G1 phase impairs MCM chromatin loading and inhibits DNA synthesis in mammalian cells. Cell Cycle 7: 2179-2188
Winnepenninckx V, Lazar V, Michiels S et al. (2006) Gene expression profiling of primary cutaneous melanoma and clinical outcome. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 98: 472-482
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Appendix
Appendix
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Xu, Y., Cui, J., Puett, D. (2014). Cancer After Metastasis: The Second Transformation. In: Cancer Bioinformatics. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1381-7_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1381-7_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-1380-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-1381-7
eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)