Skip to main content

The Assessment of Social Status: A Review of Measures and Experimental Manipulations

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover The Psychology of Social Status

Abstract

This chapter provides an overview of measures and experimental manipulations developed and used in research on social status. Our goal is to provide researchers with a resource for identifying and selecting appropriate self-report and other-report scales, behavioral measures, and experimental manipulation tools for their future empirical work on status. We provide a brief summary of each tool and how it was developed, noting, where relevant, its original source, reliability, validity, and frequency of use. We conclude with recommendations for how researchers might select among the reviewed measures and manipulations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anderson, C., John, O. P., Keltner, D., & Kring, A. M. (2001). Who attains social status? The effect of personality and physical attractiveness in social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 116–132.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C., Brion, S., Moore, D. A., & Kennedy, J. A. (2012a). A status-enhancement account of overconfidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 718–735.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C., John, O. P., & Keltner, D. (2012b). The personal sense of power. Journal of ­Personality, 80, 313–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C., Kraus, M. W., Galinsky, A. D., & Keltner, D. (2012c). The local-ladder effect social status and subjective well-being. Psychological Science, 23, 764–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, J., & Conner, T. L. (1969). Performance expectations and behavior in small groups. Acta Sociologica, 12, 186–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bohns, V. K., & Wiltermuth, S. S. (2012). It hurts when I do this (or you do that): Posture and pain tolerance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 341–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bottger, P. C. (1984). Expertise and air time as bases of actual and perceived influence in problem-solving groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 214–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carney, D. R., Cuddy, A. J., & Yap, A. J. (2010). Power posing brief nonverbal displays affect neuroendocrine levels and risk tolerance. Psychological Science, 21, 1363–1368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, C., & Lynn, R. (1989). A multifactorial approach to achievement motivation: The development of a comprehensive measure. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62, 301–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., & Henrich, J. (2010). Pride, personality, and the evolutionary foundations of human social status. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 334–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., Foulsham, T., Kingstone, A., & Henrich, J. (2013). Two ways to the top: Evidence that dominance and prestige are distinct yet viable avenues to social rank and influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 103–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chudek, M., Heller, S., Birch, S., & Henrich, J. (2012). Prestige-biased cultural learning: bystander’s differential attention to potential models influences children’s learning. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 46–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fast, N. J., Halevy, N., & Galinsky, A. D. (2012). The destructive nature of power without status. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 391–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flynn, F. J., Reagans, R. E., Amanatullah, E. T., & Ames, D. R. (2006). Helping one’s way to the top: Self-monitors achieve high status by helping others and knowing who helps whom. ­Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 1123–1137.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fortenberry, J. H., MacLean, J., Morris, P., & O’Connell, M. (1978). Mode of dress as a perceptual cue to deference. The Journal of Social Psychology, 104, 139–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foulsham, T., Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., Henrich, J., & Kingstone, A. (2010). Gaze allocation in a dynamic situation: Effects of social status and speaking. Cognition, 117, 319–331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Gangestad, S. W., Perea, E. F., Shapiro, J. R., & Kenrick, D. T. (2009). Aggress to impress: Hostility as an evolved context-dependent strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 980–994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawley, P. H., Johnson, S. E., Mize, J. A., McNamara, K. A. (2007). Physical attractiveness in preschoolers: Relationships with power, status, aggression, and social skills. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 499–521.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henrich, J., & Gil-White, F. J. (2001). The evolution of prestige: Freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 165–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hold, B. C. L. (1976). Attention structure and rank specific behavior in preschool children. In: M. R. A. Chance & R. R. Larsen (Eds.), The social structure of attention (pp. 177–202). London: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, L., Galinsky, A. D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Guillory, L. E. (2011). Powerful postures versus powerful roles which is the proximate correlate of thought and behavior?. Psychological Science, 22, 95–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, D. N. (1967). Personality Research Form manual. Goshen: Research Psychologists’ Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joshi, P. D., & Fast, N. D. (2013). Power and reduced temporal discounting. Psychological Science, 24, 432–438.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keltner, D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C. (2003). Power, approach, and inhibition. Psychological Review, 110, 265–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magee, J. C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). Social hierarchy: The self-reinforcing nature of power and status. Academy of Management Annals, 2, 351–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maner, J. K., DeWall, C. N., & Gailliot, M. T. (2008). Selective attention to signs of success: Social dominance and early stage interpersonal perception. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 488–501.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mead, N. L., & Maner, J. K. (2012). On keeping your enemies close: Powerful leaders seek proximity to ingroup power threats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 576–591.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore Jr., J. C. (1968). Status and influence in small group interactions. Sociometry, 31, 47–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olthof, T., Goossens, F. A., Vermande, M. M., Aleva, E. A., & van der Meulen, M. (2011). Bullying as a strategic behavior: Relations with desired and acquired dominance in the peer group. Journal of School Psychology, 49, 339–359.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly, C. A., & Caldwell, D. F. (1979). Informational influence as a determinant of perceived task characteristics and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 157–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettit, N. C., Yong, K., & Spataro, S. E. (2010). Holding your place: Reactions to the prospect of status gains and losses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 396–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ratcliff, N. J., Hugenberg, K., Shriver, E. R., & Bernstein, M. J. (2011). The allure of status: High-status targets are privileged in face processing and memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 1003–1015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reijntjens, A., Vermande, M., Goossens, F. A., Olthof, T., van de Schoot, R., Aleva, L., van der Meulen, M. (2013). Developmental trajectories of bullying and social dominance in youth. Child Abuse and Neglect, 37, 224–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadalla, E. K., Kenrick, D. T., & Vershure, B. (1987). Dominance and heterosexual attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 730–738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shariff, A. F., Tracy, J. L., & Markusoff, J. L. (2012). (Implicitly) Judging a book by its cover. The power of pride and shame expressions in shaping judgments of social status. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1178–1193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. K., Jostmann, N. B., Galinsky, A. D., & van Dijk, W. W. (2008). Lacking power impairs executive functions. Psychological Science, 19, 441–447.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, J. K., Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Barrett, H. C. (2008). The dominance dilemma: Do women really prefer dominant mates?. Personal Relationships, 15, 425–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steers, R. M., & Braunstein, D. N. (1976). A behaviorally based measure of manifest needs in work settings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 9, 251–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, L., Frankenhuis, W. E., Ingold-Smith, M., & Carey, S. (2011). Big and mighty: Preverbal infants mentally represent social dominance. Science, 331, 477–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiedens, L. Z., & Fragale, A. R. (2003). Power moves: complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 84, 558–568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tiedens, L. Z., Unzueta, M. M., & Young, M. J. (2007). An unconscious desire for hierarchy? The motivated perception of dominance complementarity in task partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 402–414.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiggins, J. S. (1979). A psychological taxonomy of trait-descriptive terms: The interpersonal domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 395–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiggins, J. S., & Trapnell, P. D. (1996). A dyadic-interactional perspective on the five factor model. In J. S. Wiggins (Ed.), The five factor model of personality: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 88–162). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiggins, J. S., Trapnell, P., & Phillips, N. (1988). Psychometric and geometric characteristics of the Revised Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS-R). Multivariate Behavioral Research, 23, 517–530.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willer, R. (2009). Groups reward individual sacrifice: The status solution to the collective action problem. American Sociological Review, 74, 23–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joey T. Cheng .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cheng, J., Weidman, A., Tracy, J. (2014). The Assessment of Social Status: A Review of Measures and Experimental Manipulations. In: Cheng, J., Tracy, J., Anderson, C. (eds) The Psychology of Social Status. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-0867-7_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics