Abstract
Remote sensing is the ability to acquire information about an object or phenomenon without physically contacting the object or place from which this information is obtained. Remote sensing is a fast-developing field, which makes it possible to monitor secluded or inaccessible areas. Sensing can be passive, where energy is collected or active whereby energy is emitted by the sensor and perturbs the sensing environment.
Remote electrochemical sensing has many advantages since the electrochemical sensors can be made relatively small and cheap and, nevertheless, are highly sensitive and in many cases possess also high selectivity and robustness. Transduction of the electrochemical response into an electrical signal that can be transmitted over long distances is inherently part of the electrochemical sensor. The major challenges in remote electrochemical systems are sampling and delivery of the sample to the detector. This usually requires introducing a flow system.
Flow systems not only enable the automation of the measurement and ensure relatively easy data collection, but also simplify the entire process in comparison with a static process, which contains various stages of liquid replacements and mixing. Electrochemical methods are known for their high sensitivity, thus enabling the measurement of very low concentration employing small volumes. These make coupling between electrochemical measurements and flow systems ideal for remote sensing.
This chapter describes the concepts of remote sensing in general and remote electrochemical sensing in particular. We review the different approaches and studies dealing with remote electrochemical sensing including voltammetry, potentiometry and other techniques. Conclusions of the advantages and disadvantages of remote electrochemical sensing are discussed and perspectives of this type of sensing are suggested.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Tercier ML, Buffle J, Graziottin F (1998) Novel voltammetric in-situ profiling system for continuous real-time monitoring of trace elements in natural waters. Electroanalysis 10:355–363
Zagatto EAG, Carneiro JMT, Vicente S, Fortes PR, Santos JLM, Lima J (2009) Mixing chambers in flow analysis: a review. J Anal Chem 64:524–532
Johnson DC, Weber SG, Bond AM, Wightman RM, Shoup RE, Krull IS (1986) Electroanalytical voltammetry in flowing solutions. Anal Chim Acta 180:187–250
Volikakis GJ, Efstathiou CE (2000) Determination of rutin and other flavonoids by flow-injection/adsorptive stripping voltammetry using nujol-graphite and diphenylether-graphite paste electrodes. Talanta 51:775–785
Volikakis GJ, Efstathiou CE (2005) Fast screening of total flavonols in wines, tea-infusions and tomato juice by flow injection/adsorptive stripping voltammetry. Anal Chim Acta 551:124–131
Lenehan CE, Barnett NW, Lewis SW (2002) Sequential injection analysis. Analyst 127:997–1020
Ivaska A, Kubiak WW (1997) Application of sequential injection analysis to anodic stripping voltammetry. Talanta 44:713–723
Ruzicka J, Gubeli T (1991) Principles of stopped-flow sequential injection-analysis and its application to the kinetic determination of traces of a proteolytic-enzyme. Anal Chem 63:1680–1685
Soucaze Guillous B, Kutner W (1997) Flow characteristics of a versatile wall-jet or radial-flow thin-layer large-volume cell for electrochemical detection in flow-through analytical systems. Electroanalysis 9:32–39
Karyakin AA, Karyakina EE, Gorton L (1996) Prussian-Blue-based amperometric biosensors in flow-injection analysis. Talanta 43:1597–1606
BASi (2013) http://www.basinc.com/
Morgan DM, Weber SG (1984) Noise and signal-to-noise ratio in electrochemical detectors. Anal Chem 56:2560–2567
Stulik K, Pacakova V (1986) Some aspects of design, performance and applications of electrochemical detectors in HPLC and FIA. Ann Chim 76:315–332
Ryan MD, Bowden EF, Chambers JQ (1994) Dynamic electrochemistry—methodology and application. Anal Chem 66:R360–R427
Danhel A, Shiu KK, Yosypchuk B, Barek J, Peckova K, Vyskocil V (2009) The use of silver solid amalgam working electrode for determination of nitrophenols by HPLC with electrochemical detection. Electroanalysis 21:303–308
Davey DE, Mulcahy DE, Oconnell GR (1993) comparison of detector cell configurations in flow-injection potentiometry. Electroanalysis 5:581–588
Patthy M, Gyenge R, Salat J (1982) comparison of the design and performance-characteristics of the wall-jet type and thin-layer type electrochemical detectors—separation of catecholamines and phenothiazines. J Chromatogr 241:131–139
Hanekamp HB, Dejong HG (1982) Theoretical comparison of the performance of electrochemical flow-through detectors. Anal Chim Acta 135:351–354
Yamada J, Matsuda H (1973) Limiting diffusion currents in hydrodynamic voltammetry. 3. Wall jet electrodes. J Electroanal Chem 44:189–198
Stojanovic RS, Bond AM, Butler ECV (1992) A comparative-study of the cylindrical wire, thin-layer, and wall-jet detector cells for the determination of inorganic arsenic by ion exclusion chromatography with constant and pulsed amperometric detection. Electroanalysis 4:453–461
Maixnerova L, Barek J, Peckova K (2012) Thin-layer and wall-jet arrangement of amperometric detector with boron-doped diamond electrode: comparison of amperometric determination of aminobiphenyls in HPLC-ED. Electroanalysis 24:649–658
Maccarthy P, Klusman RW, Cowling SW, Rice JA (1993) water analysis. Anal Chem 65:R244–R292
Sole S, Alegret S (2001) Environmental toxicity monitoring using electrochemical biosensing systems. Environ Sci Poll Res 8:256–264
Rundel PW, Graham EA, Allen MF, Fisher JC, Harmon TC (2009) Environmental sensor networks in ecological research. New Phytol 182:589–607
Lourino-Cabana B, Iftekhar S, Billon G, Mikkelsen O, Ouddane B (2010) Automatic trace metal monitoring station use for early warning and short term events in polluted rivers: application to streams loaded by mining tailing. J Environ Monit 12:1898–1906
Hanrahan G, Patil DG, Wang J (2004) Electrochemical sensors for environmental monitoring: design, development and applications. J Environ Monit 6:657–664
Nimick DA, Gammons CH, Cleasby TE, Madison JP, Skaar D, Brick CM (2003) Diel cycles in dissolved metal concentrations in streams: Occurrence and possible causes. Water Resourc Res 39. doi:10.1029/2002WR001571
McKnight D, Bencala KE (1988) Diel variations in iron chemistry in an acidic stream in the Colorado Rocky-Mountains, USA. Arctic Alpine Res 20:492–500
Lourino-Cabana B, Billon G, Magnier A, Prygiel E, Baeyens W, Prygiel J et al (2011) Evidence of highly dynamic geochemical behaviour of zinc in the Deule river (northern France). J Environ Monit 13:2124–2133
Saulnier I, Mucci A (2000) Trace metal remobilization following the resuspension of estuarine sediments: Saguenay Fjord, Canada. Appl Geochem 15:191–210
Van den Berg GA, Meijers GGA, Van der Heijdt LM, Zwolsman JJG (2001) Dredging-related mobilisation of trace metals: a case study in the Netherlands. Water Res 35:1979–1986
Inano S, Yamazaki H, Yoshikawa S (2004) The history of heavy metal pollution during the last 100 years, recorded in sediment cores from Osaka castle moat, southwestern Japan. Quaternary Res (Tokyo) 43:275–286
Watanabe T, Ohe T, Hirayama T (2005) Occurrence and origin of mutagenicity in soil and water environment. Environ Sci 12:325–346
EPA (2013) http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/
Diamond D, Lau KT, Brady S, Cleary J (2008) Integration of analytical measurements and wireless communications—current issues and future strategies. Talanta 75:606–612
LaGier MJ, Fell JW, Goodwin KD (2007) Electrochemical detection of harmful algae and other microbial contaminants in coastal waters using hand-held biosensors. Mar Pollut Bull 54:757–770
DeForest DK, Brix KV, Adams WJ (2007) Assessing metal bioaccumulation in aquatic environments: the inverse relationship between bioaccumulation factors, trophic transfer factors and exposure concentration. Aquat Toxicol 84:236–246
Mikkelsen O, Strasunskiene K, Skogvold S, Schroder KH, Johnsen CC, Rydningen M et al (2007) Automatic voltammetric system for continuous trace metal monitoring in various environmental samples. Electroanalysis 19:2085–2092
Miro M, Jimoh M, Frenzel W (2005) A novel dynamic approach for automatic microsampling and continuous monitoring of metal ion release from soils exploiting a dedicated flow-through microdialyser. Anal Bioanal Chem 382:396–404
Tercier-Waeber ML, Confalonieri F, Riccardi G, Sina A, Noel S, Buffle J et al (2005) Multi physical-chemical profiler for real-time in situ monitoring of trace metal speciation and master variables: development, validation and field applications. Mar Chem 97:216–235
Superville P-J, Louis Y, Billon G, Prygiel J, Omanovic D, Pizeta I (2011) An adaptable automatic trace metal monitoring system for on line measuring in natural waters. Talanta 87:85–92
Jang A, Zou Z, Lee KK, Ahn CH, Bishop PL (2011) State-of-the-art lab chip sensors for environmental water monitoring. Meas Sci Technol 22:032001
Rajar R, Zagar D, Cetina M, Akagi H, Yano S, Tomiyasu T et al (2004) Application of three-dimensional mercury cycling model to coastal seas. Ecol Model 171:139–155
Rajar R, Zagar D, Sirca A, Horvat M (2000) Three-dimensional modelling of mercury cycling in the Gulf of Trieste. Sci Tot Environ 260:109–123
Pastorello GZ, Sanchez-Azofeifa GA, Nascimento MA (2011) Enviro-Net: from networks of ground-based sensor systems to a web platform for sensor data management. Sensors 11:6454–6479
Porter J, Arzberger P, Braun HW, Bryant P, Gage S, Hansen T et al (2005) Wireless sensor networks for ecology. Bioscience 55:561–572
Mead MI, Popoola OAM, Stewart GB, Landshoff P, Calleja M, Hayes M et al (2013) The use of electrochemical sensors for monitoring urban air quality in low-cost, high-density networks. Atmos Environ 70:186–203
Coloso JJ, Cole JJ, Hanson PC, Pace ML (2008) Depth-integrated, continuous estimates of metabolism in a clear-water lake. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 65:712–722
Le Goff T, Braven J, Ebdon L, Scholefield D (2003) Automatic continuous river monitoring of nitrate using a novel ion-selective electrode. J Environ Monit 5:353–358
Scholefield D, Le Goff T, Braven J, Ebdon L, Long T, Butler M (2005) Concerted diurnal patterns in riverine nutrient concentrations and physical conditions. Sci Tot Environ 344:201–210
Noyhouzer T, Mandler D (2013) A new electrochemical flow cell for the remote sensing of heavy metals. Electroanalysis 25:109–115
Zirino A, Lieberman SH, Clavell C (1978) measurement of Cu and Zn in San Diego bay by automated anodic-stripping voltammetry. Environ Sci Technol 12:73–79
Mills G, Fones G (2012) A review of in situ methods and sensors for monitoring the marine environment. Sensor Rev 32:17–28
Wadhams P, Wilkinson JP, McPhail SD (2006) A new view of the underside of Arctic sea ice. Geophys Res Lett 33, L04501
Bogue R (2011) Robots for monitoring the environment. Ind Robot 38:560–566
Stix G (1994) ROBOTUNA. Sci Am 270:142–142
Stokey R, Allen B, Austin T, Goldsborough R, Forrester N, Purcell M et al (2001) Enabling technologies for REMUS docking: an integral component of an autonomous ocean-sampling network. IEEE J Ocean Eng 26:487–497
Collar PG, McPhail SD (1995) Autosub—an autonomous unmanned submersible for ocean data-collection. Electron Commun Eng J 7:105–114
Dickey TD, Bidigare RR (2005) Interdisciplinary oceanographic observations: the wave of the future. Sci Mar 69:23–42
Montgomery JL, Harmon T, Kaiser W, Sanderson A, Haas CN, Hooper R et al (2007) The WATERS network: an integrated environmental observatory network for water research. Environ Sci Technol 41:6642–6647
Wegehenkel M, Kersebaum KC (2005) The validation of a modeling system for calculating water balance and catchment discharge using simple techniques based on field data and remote sensing data. Phys Chem Earth 30:171–179
Williams SB, Pizarro OR, Jakuba MV, Johnson CR, Barrett NS, Babcock RC et al (2012) Monitoring of benthic reference sites using an autonomous underwater vehicle. IEEE Robot Automat Mag 19:73–84
Rudnick DL, Davis RE, Eriksen CC, Fratantoni DM, Perry MJ (2004) Underwater gliders for ocean research. Mar Technol Soc J 38:73–84
CISRO (2013) http://www.csiro.au/
Musameh MM, Gao Y, Hickey M, Kyratzis IL (2012) Application of carbon nanotubes in the extraction and electrochemical detection of organophosphate pesticides: a review. Anal Lett 45:783–803
Florence TM (1982) The speciation of trace-elements in waters. Talanta 29:345–364
Wang J (2007) Electrochemical sensing of explosives. Electroanalysis 19:415–423
Tercier ML, Buffle J, Zirino A, Devitre RR (1990) In situ voltammetric measurement of trace-elements in lakes and oceans. Anal Chim Acta 237:429–437
Wang J (2000) In situ electrochemical monitoring: from remote sensors to submersible microlaboratories. Lab Robot Automat 12:178–182
Wang J, Foster N, Armalis S, Larson D, Zirino A, Olsen K (1995) Remote stripping electrode for in-situ monitoring of labile copper in the marine-environment. Anal Chim Acta 310:223–231
Wang J, Tian BM, Wang JY (1998) Electrochemical flow sensor for in-situ monitoring of total metal concentrations. Anal Commun 35:241–243
Wang J, Wang JY, Lu JM, Tian BM, MacDonald D, Olsen K (1999) Flow probe for in situ electrochemical monitoring of trace chromium. Analyst 124:349–352
Wang J, Cepria G, Chen Q (1996) Submersible bioprobe for continuous monitoring of peroxide species. Electroanalysis 8:124–127
Wang J, Chen Q, Cepria G (1996) Electrocatalytic modified electrode for remote monitoring of hydrazines. Talanta 43:1387–1391
Wang J, Chen QA (1995) Remote electrochemical biosensor for field monitoring of phenolic-compounds. Anal Chim Acta 312:39–44
Wang J, Tian BM, Wang JY, Lu JM, Olsen C, Yarnitzky C et al (1999) Stripping analysis into the 21st century: faster, smaller, cheaper, simpler and better. Anal Chim Acta 385:429–435
Braungardt CB, Achterberg EP, Axelsson B, Buffle J, Graziottin F, Howell KA et al (2009) Analysis of dissolved metal fractions in coastal waters: an inter-comparison of five voltammetric in situ profiling (VIP) systems. Mar Chem 114:47–55
Tercier-Waeber ML, Buffle J, Confalonieri F, Riccardi G, Sina A, Graziottin F et al (1999) Submersible voltammetric probes for in situ real-time trace element measurements in surface water, groundwater and sediment-water interface. Meas Sci Technol 10:1202–1213
Chapin TP, Nimick DA, Gammons CH, Wanty RB (2007) Diel cycling of zinc in a stream impacted by acid rock drainage: initial results from a new in situ Zn analyzer. Environ Monit Assess 133:161–167
Freitas G, Gleizer G, Lizarralde F, Hsu L, Salvi dos Reis NR (2010) Kinematic reconfigurability control for an environmental mobile robot operating in the Amazon Rain Forest. J Field Robot 27:197–216
Noyhouzer T, Mandler D (2011) Determination of low levels of cadmium ions by the under potential deposition on a self-assembled monolayer on gold electrode. Anal Chim Acta 684:1–7
Fink L, Mandler D (2010) Thin functionalized films on cylindrical microelectrodes for electrochemical determination of Hg(II). J Electroanal Chem 649:153–158
SHOAL (2012) http://www.roboshoal.com/
Flow System Network (2013) http://float.berkeley.edu/
Geotraces (2013) http://www.geotraces.org/
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Noyhouzer, T., Mandler, D. (2014). Remote Sensing. In: Moretto, L., Kalcher, K. (eds) Environmental Analysis by Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors. Nanostructure Science and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-0676-5_23
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-0676-5_23
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-0675-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-0676-5
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)