Abstract
Depressive, Anxiety, Posttraumatic, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders can cause significant impairment in work functioning as well as employment status. Promising interventions packages targeting return to work for these disorders have been developed and tested. In this chapter, we describe some of these existing interventions. In order to provide some context, we begin first with a brief description of mood and anxiety disorders, their impact on work functioning and a summary of optimal treatment for these disorders. Next, we review several return to work interventions specific to mood and anxiety and related mental disorders. We outline their key elements and available data on their effectiveness. Subsequently, we identify common treatment foci of these interventions and how these may inform current practice. Finally, we outline limitations in this research in order to highlight areas for future development.
(Portions of this chapter previously appeared in Peer and Tenhula [2011]).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Adler, D. A., McLaughlin, T. J., Rogers, W. H., Chang, H., Lapitsky, L., & Lerner, D. (2006). Job performance deficits due to depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1569–1576.
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2006). Practice guidelines for the treatment of psychiatric disorders: Compendium. Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Anema, J. R., Steenstra, I. A., Bongers, P. M., de Vet, H. C. W., Knol, D. L., Loisel, P., et al. (2007). Multidisciplinary rehabilitation for subacute low back pain: Graded activity or workplace intervention or both? A randomized clinical trial. Spine, 32, 291–298.
Barlow, D. H., & Lehman, C. L. (1996). Advances in the psychosocial treatment of anxiety disorders: Implications for national health care. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 727–735.
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1987). Cognitive therapy for depression. New York: Guilford.
British Occupational Health Research Foundation (2005). Workplace interventions for people with common mental health problems: Evidence review and recommendations. London: Author.
Bender, A., & Farvolden, P. (2008). Depression and the workplace: A progress report. Current Psychiatry Reports, 10, 73–79.
Bilsker, D., Wiseman, S., & Gilbert, M. (2006). Managing depression-related occupational disability: A pragmatic approach. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 76–83.
Blonk, R. W. B., Brenninkmeijer, V., Lagerveld, S. E., & Houtman, I. L. D. (2006). Return to work: A comparison of two cognitive behavioural interventions in cases or work-related psychological complaints among the self-employed. Work and Stress, 20, 129–144.
Bond, G. R., Drake, R. E., & Becker, D. R. (2008). An update on randomized controlled trials of evidence-based supported employment. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 31, 280–290.
Brenninkmeijer, V., Houtman, I., & Blonk, R. (2008). Depressed and absent from work: Predicting depressive symptomatology among employees. Occupational Medicine, 58, 295–301.
Breslau, N., Lucia, V. C., & Davis, G. C. (2004). Partial PTSD versus full PTSD: An empirical examination of associated impairment. Psychological Medicine, 34, 1205–1214.
Brouwers, E. P. M., Terluin, B., Tiemens, B. G., & Verhaak, P. F. M. (2009). Predicting return to work in employees sick-listed due to minor mental disorders. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 19, 323–332.
Brouwers, E. P. M., Tiemens, B. G., Terluin, B., & Verhaak, P. F. M. (2006). Effectiveness of an intervention to reduce sickness absence in patients with emotional distress or minor mental disorders: A randomized controlled effectiveness trial. General Hospital Psychiatry, 28, 223–229.
Davis, L., Leon, A. C., Toscano, R., Drebing, C. E., Ward, L. C., Parker, P. E., et al. (2012). A randomized controlled trial of supported employment among veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Services, 196(5), 404–411.
de Vente, W., Kamphuis, J. H., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & Blonk, R. W. B. (2008). Individual and group cognitive behavioral-therapy treatment for work-related stress complaints and sickness absence: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13, 214–231.
Dobson, K. S. (1989). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of cognitive therapy for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 414–419.
Franche, R. L., Cullen, K., Clarke, J., Irvin, E., Sinclair, S., Frank, J., et al. (2005). Workplace-based return-to-work interventions: A systematic review of the quantitative literature. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 15, 607–631.
Frank, E., Soreca, I., Swartz, H. A., Fagiolini, A. M., Mallinger, A. G., Thase, M. E., et al. (2008). The role of interpersonal and social rhythm therapy in improving occupational functioning in patients with bipolar I disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1559–1565.
Gloaguen, V., Cottraux, J., Cucherat, M., & Blackburn, I. (1998). A meta-analysis of the effects of cognitive therapy in depressed patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 49, 59–72.
Granger, B., Baron, R., & Robinson, S. (1997). Findings from a national survey of job coaches and job developers about job accommodations arranged between employers and people with psychiatric disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 9, 235–251.
Greenberg, P. E., Sisitsky, T., Kessler, R. C., Finkelstein, S. N., Berndt, E. R., Davidson, J. R. T., et al. (1999). The economic burden of anxiety disorders in the 1990s. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 427–435.
Haslam, C., Atkinson, S., Brown, S. S., & Haslam, R. A. (2005). Anxiety and depression in the workplace: Effects on the individual and organization (a focus group investigation). Journal of Affective Disorders, 88, 209–215.
Hofmann, S. G., & Smits, J. A. J. (2008). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adult anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 621–632.
Kessler, R. C., Akiskal, H. S., Ames, M., Birnbaum, H., Greenberg, P., Hirschfield, R., et al. (2006). Prevalence and effects of mood disorders on work performance in a nationally representative sample of US workers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1561–1568.
Kessler, R. C., Merkangas, K. R., & Wang, P. S. (2008). The prevalence and correlates of workplace depression in the national comorbidity survey replication. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 50, 381–390.
Lagerveld, S. E., Blonk, R. W., Brenninkmeijer, V., Wijngaards-de Meij, L., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2012). Work-focused treatment of common mental disorders and return to work: A comparative outcome study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17, 220–234.
Larson, J. E., Barr, L. K., Kuwabara, S. A., Boyle, M. G., & Glenn, T. L. (2007). Process and outcome analysis of a supported employment program for people with psychiatric disabilities. American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation, 10, 339–353.
Loisel, P., Buchbinder, R., Hazard, R., Keller, R., Scheel, I., van Tulder, M., et al. (2005). Prevention of work disability due to musculoskeletal disorders: The challenge of implementing evidence. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 15, 507–524.
Michalak, E. E., Yatham, L. N., Maxwell, V., Hale, S., & Lam, R. W. (2007). The impact of bipolar disorder upon work functioning: A qualitative analysis. Bipolar Disorders, 9, 126–143.
Mintz, J., Mintz, L. I., Arruda, M. J., & Hwang, S. S. (1992). Treatments of depression and the functional capacity to work. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 761–768.
Murdoch, M., Hodges, J., Hunt, C., Cowper, D., Kressin, N., & O’Brien, N. (2003). Gender differences in service connection for PTSD. Medical Care, 41, 950–961.
Nierenberg, A. A., Ostacher, M. J., Huffman, J. C., Ametrano, R. M., Fava, M., & Perlis, R. H. (2008). A brief review of antidepressant efficacy, effectiveness, indications and usage for major depressive disorder. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 50, 428–436.
Nieuwenhuijsen, K., Bultmann, U., Neumeyer-Gromen, A., Verhoen, A. C., Verbeek, J., & van der Feltz-Cornelis, C. M. (2008). Interventions to improve occupational health in depressed people (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD006237.
Noordik, E., van Dijk, F. J., Nieuwenhuijsen, K., & van der Klink, J. J. L. (2009). Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of an exposure-based return-to-work programme for patients on sick leave due to common mental disorders: Design of a cluster-randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health, 9, 140.
Peer, J., & Tenhula, W. (2011). Employment interventions for persons with mood and anxiety disorders. In I. Z. Schultz & E. S. Rogers (Eds.), Work accommodation and retention in mental health. New York: Springer.
Pomaki, G., Franche, R.-L., Khushrushahi, N., Murray, E., Lampinen, T., & Mah, P. (2010). Best practices for return-to-work/stay-at-work interventions for workers with mental health conditions. Vancouver, BC: Occupational Health and Safety Agency for Healthcare in BC (OHSAH).
Rebergen, D. S., Bruinvels, D. J., Bezemer, P. D., van der Beek, A. J., & van Mechelen, W. (2009). Guideline-based care of common mental disorders by occupational physician (CO-OP study): A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 51, 305–312.
Rebergen, D. S., Bruinvels, D. J., van der Beek, A. J., & van Mechelen, W. (2007). Design of a randomized controlled trial on the effects of counseling of mental health problems by occupational physicians on return to work: The CO-OP study. BMC Public Health, 7, 183.
Sanderson, K., & Andrews, G. (2006). Common mental disorders in the workforce: Recent findings from descriptive and social epidemiology. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 63–75.
Schene, A. H., Koeter, M. W. J., Kikkert, M. J., Swinkels, J. A., & McCrone, P. (2007). Adjuvant occupational therapy for work-related major depression works: Randomized controlled trial including economic evaluation. Psychological Medicine, 37, 351–362.
Schoenbaum, M., Unutzer, J., McCaffrey, D., Duan, N., Sherbourne, C., & Wells, K. B. (2002). The effects of primary care depression treatment on patients’ clinical status and employment. Health Services Research, 37, 1145–1158.
Shaw, W., Hong, Q., Pransky, G., & Loisel, P. (2008). A literature review describing the role of return-to-work coordinators in trial programs and interventions designed to prevent workplace disability. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 18, 2–15.
Thomas, J. L., Wilk, J. E., Riviere, L. A., McGurk, D., Castro, C. A., & Hoge, C. W. (2010). Prevalence of mental health problems and functional impairment among active component and national guard soldiers 3 and 12 months following combat in Iraq. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 614–623.
United States Department of Veterans Affairs/Department of Defense. (2009). Clinical practice guidelines: Management of major depressive disorder. Retrieved from http://www.healthquality.va.gov/Major_Depressive_Disorder_MDD_Clinical_Practice_Guideline.asp
United States Department of Veterans Affairs/Department of Defense. (2010). Clinical practice guidelines: Management of Post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress reaction. Retrieved from http://www.healthquality.va.gov/Post_Traumatic_Stress_Disorder_PTSD.asp
van der Klink, J. J. L., Blonk, R. W. B., Schene, A. H., & van Dijk, F. J. H. (2003). Reducing long term sickness absence by an activation intervention in adjustment disorders: A cluster randomized controlled design. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60, 429–437.
van Oostrom, S., Anema, J. R., Terluin, B., Venema, A., de Vet, H. C. W., & van Mechelen, W. (2007). Development of a workplace intervention for sick listed employees with stress-related mental disorders: Intervention mapping as a useful tool. BMC Health Services Research, 7, 127.
van Oostrom, S., van Mechelen, W., Terluin, B., de Vet, H., Knol, D., & Anema, J. (2010). A workplace intervention for sick-listed employees with distress: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Occupational Environmental Medicine, 67(9), 596–602.
van Oostrom, S., van Mechelen, W., Terluin, B., de Vet, H., & Anema, J. (2009). A participatory workplace intervention for employees with distress and lost time: A feasibility evaluation within a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 19, 212–222.
Vlasveld, M. C., Anema, J. R., Beekman, A. T. F., van Mechelen, W., Hoedeman, R., van Marwijk, H. W. J., et al. (2008). Multidisciplinary collaborative care for depressive disorder in the occupational health setting: Design of a randomized controlled trial and cost-effectiveness study. BMC Health Services Research, 8, 99.
Waghorn, G., & Chant, D. (2005). Employment restrictions among persons with ICD-10 anxiety disorders: Characteristics from a population survey. Anxiety Disorders, 19, 642–657.
Waghorn, G., Chant, D., White, P., & Whiteford, H. (2005). Disability, employment and work performance among people with ICD-10 anxiety disorders. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 39, 55–66.
Wald, J. (2009). Work limitations in employed persons seeking treatment for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, 312–315.
Wang, P. S., Berglund, P., & Kessler, R. C. (2000). Recent care of common mental disorders in the United States prevalence and conformance with evidence-based recommendations. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 15, 284–292.
Wang, P. S., Simon, G. E., Avorn, J., Azocar, F., Ludman, E. J., McCulloch, J., et al. (2007). Telephone screening, outreach, and care management for depressed workers and impact on clinical and work productivity outcomes: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 298, 1401–1411.
Young, A. S., Klap, R., Sherourne, C. D., & Wells, K. B. (2001). The quality of care for depressive and anxiety disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 55–61.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Peer, J.E., Tenhula, W. (2016). Return to Work in Depression and Anxiety. In: Schultz, I., Gatchel, R. (eds) Handbook of Return to Work. Handbooks in Health, Work, and Disability, vol 1. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7627-7_34
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7627-7_34
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-7626-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-7627-7
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)