Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hepatitis A Virus

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Viral Infections of Humans

Abstract

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection is a preventable, self-limiting necro-inflammatory disease of the liver which has been infecting humans for millennia. Major progress has been made in the past six decades in understanding the pathogenesis, epidemiology, clinical presentation, and prevention of hepatitis A. The HAV is a non-cytopathic, hepatotropic RNA virus which replicates in hepatocytes and generates immune-mediated liver injury. Infection is mainly transmitted through fecal–oral route, close person-to-person contact, and intake of contaminated water or food. The epidemiology of HAV infection is driven by the level of sanitary and socioeconomic conditions in defined geographic regions and, recently, by the introduction of hepatitis A vaccines. According to the World Health Organization, endemicity of HAV infection is assessed through the age-dependant prevalence of anti-HAV (IgG) antibodies which is used for calculation of the incidence. Thus, endemicity can be defined as high, intermediate, low, and very low. In countries with low or very low endemicity of HAV, almost all children and adults below the age of 40 years have not been exposed to HAV and remain susceptible, i.e., when traveling to areas endemic for HAV. In contrast, in endemic countries in Africa and Asia, almost 100 % of children have been infected by the age of 10 years. However, progressive improvement in sanitary and socioeconomic conditions in countries with high and intermediate endemicity is leading to a shift in the age of infection which becomes more symptomatic >5 years of age and especially in adolescents and adults, in whom infection causes significant morbidity and incapacitation, albeit for a limited period. Thus, the improving socioeconomic conditions and level of hygienic standards in many countries with intermediate endemicity in transition have led to a shift in susceptibility to infection in adolescents and young adults. Several attenuated HAV strains have been used for over 20 years in the United States, Europe, and China for manufacturing of formalin-inactivated vaccines. All these vaccines given at two doses, separated by a flexible interval of 6–12 months, have had an excellent record of safety and tolerability and have been shown to be highly immunogenic. Mass and universal vaccination programs in the United States, Israel, several European countries, and Australia have led to an unprecedented decline in the incidence of HAV infection in these regions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

ACIP:

Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices

ALF:

Acute liver failure

ALT:

Alanine aminotransferase

Anti-HAV:

Antibodies to hepatitis A virus

BMI:

Body mass index

CDC:

Centers for Disease Control (USA)

cDNA:

Complementary DNA

EIA:

Enzyme-linked immunoassay

ELISA:

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

EPI:

Expanded Program on Immunization

GBD:

Global burden of disease

GID:

Global incidence of disease

GMC:

Geometric mean concentration

HAV:

Hepatitis A virus

HBsAg:

Hepatitis B surface antigen

HBV:

Hepatitis B virus

HCV:

Hepatitis C virus

HIV:

Human immunodeficiency virus

HLA:

Histocompatibility leukocyte antigen

IDU:

Intravenous drug use

IEM:

Immune electron microscopy

IG:

Immunoglobulin

IV:

Intravenous

LAK:

Lymphokine-activated killer cells

MSM:

Men who have sex with men

NHANES:

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

NK:

Cells natural killer cells

PBMC:

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells

RIFIT:

Radioimmunofocus inhibition assay

RNA:

Ribonucleic acid

WHO:

World Health Organization

References

  1. Zuckerman AJ. The history of viral hepatitis from antiquity to the present. In:Viral hepatitis: Laboratory and clinical science. F. Deinhardt, J. Deinhardt (eds.), Marcel Dekker Inc. New York, Basel 1983. pp 3–32.

    Google Scholar 

  2. MacCallum FO. 1971 International symposium on viral hepatitis. Historical perspectives. Can Med Assoc J. 1972;106(Suppl):423–6.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Teo CG. Fatal outbreaks of jaundice in pregnancy and the epidemic history of hepatitis E. Epidemiol Infect. 2012;140:767–87.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Martin A, Lemon SM. Hepatitis A virus: from discovery to vaccines. Hepatology. 2006;43:S164–72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Shouval D. The immunological basis for immunization series. In: Immunization vaccines and biologicals. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011. pp 1–39.

    Google Scholar 

  6. MacCallum F. Homologous serum jaundice. Lancet. 1947;2:691.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Nainan OV, Margolis HS, Robertson BH, Balayan M, Brinton MA. Sequence analysis of a new hepatitis A virus naturally infecting cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis). J Gen Virol. 1991;72(Pt 7):1685–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Holmes AW, Wolfe L, Rosenblate H, Deinhardt F. Hepatitis in marmosets: induction of disease with coded specimens from a human volunteer study. Science. 1969;165:816–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Krugman S, Giles JP, Hammond J. Infectious hepatitis. Evidence for two distinctive clinical, epidemiological, and immunological types of infection. JAMA. 1967;200:365–73.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Krugman S, Ward R, Giles JP, Jacobs AM. Infectious hepatitis. Studies on the effect of gamma globulin and on the incidence of inapparent infection. JAMA. 1960;174:823–30.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Krugman S, Giles JP, Neefe JR, et al. Viral hepatitis. New light on an old disease. JAMA. 1970;212:1019–29.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Stokes Jr J, Blanchard M, et al. Methods of protection against homologous serum hepatitis; studies on the protective value of gamma globulin in homologous serum hepatitis Sh virus. J Am Med Assoc. 1948;138:336–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Feinstone S, Kapikian AZ, Purcell RH. Hepatitis A: detection by immune electron microscopy of a viruslike antigen associated with acute illness. Science. 1973;182:1026–8.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Kamar N, Dalton HR, Abravanel F, Izopet J. Hepatitis E virus infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014;27:116–38.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Robertson BH, Normann A, Graff J, Flehmig B, Friedberg D, Shouval D. Hepatitis A virus and polymerase chain reaction amplification: methodology and results. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1995;6 Suppl 2:S27–31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Apaire-Marchais V, Robertson BH, Aubineau-Ferre V, et al. Direct sequencing of hepatitis A virus strains isolated during an epidemic in France. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1995;61:3977–80.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Nainan OV, Xia G, Vaughan G, Margolis HS. Diagnosis of hepatitis a virus infection: a molecular approach. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006;19:63–79.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Vaughan G, Goncalves-Rossi LM, Forbi JC, et al. Hepatitis A virus: Host interactions molecular epidemiology and evolution. Infection Genetics and Evolution 2014;21:227–43.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Provost PJ, Hilleman MR. Propagation of human hepatitis A virus in cell culture in vitro. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1979;160:213–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Werzberger A, Mensch B, Kuter B, et al. A controlled trial of a formalin-inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in healthy children. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:453–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Innis BLSR, Kunasol P, et al. Protection against hepatitis A by an inactivated vaccine. JAMA. 1994;271:1328–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. WHO. WHO Position paper on hepatitis A vaccines. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2012;87:261–76.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Jacobsen KH, Wiersma ST. Hepatitis A virus seroprevalence by age and world region, 1990 and 2005. Vaccine. 2010;28:6653–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Hadler SC. Global impact of hepatitis A virus infection changing patterns. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Robertson BH, Jansen RW, Khanna B, et al. Genetic relatedness of hepatitis A virus strains recovered from different geographical regions. J Gen Virol. 1992;73(Pt 6):1365–77.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Franco E, Meleleo C, Serino L, Sorbara D, Zaratti L, Hepatitis A. Epidemiology and prevention in developing countries. World J Hepatol. 2012;4:68–73.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Frosner GG, Papaevangelou G, Butler R, et al. Antibody against hepatitis A in seven European countries. I. Comparison of prevalence data in different age groups. Am J Epidemiol. 1979;110:63–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Gust ID. Epidemiological patterns of hepatitis A in different parts of the world. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S56–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Lemon SM, Binn LN, Marchwicki RH. Radioimmunofocus assay for quantitation of hepatitis A virus in cell cultures. J Clin Microbiol. 1983;17:834–9.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Wheeler CM, Robertson BH, Van Nest G, Dina D, Bradley DW, Fields HA. Structure of the hepatitis A virion: peptide mapping of the capsid region. J Virol. 1986;58:307–13.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Lemon SM, Binn LN. Serum neutralizing antibody response to hepatitis A virus. J Infect Dis. 1983;148:1033–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Jansen RW, Newbold JE, Lemon SM. Combined immunoaffinity cDNA-RNA hybridization assay for detection of hepatitis A virus in clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1985;22:984–9.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Kao HW, Ashcavai M, Redeker AG. The persistence of hepatitis A IgM antibody after acute clinical hepatitis A. Hepatology. 1984;4:933–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Cromeans T, Naina O, Fields HH, Favorova MO, Margolis HS. Hepatitis A and E viruses. New-York: Marcel Dekker; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Daudi N, Shouval D, Stein-Zamir C, Ackerman Z. Breastmilk hepatitis A virus RNA in nursing mothers with acute hepatitis A virus infection. Breastfeed Med. 2012;7:313–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Locarnini SA, Ferris AA, Lehmann NI, Gust ID. The antibody response following hepatitis A infection. Intervirology. 1977;8:309–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Shouval D, Ashur Y, Adler R, et al. Single and booster dose responses to an inactivated hepatitis A virus vaccine: comparison with immune serum globulin prophylaxis. Vaccine. 1993;11 Suppl 1:S9–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Robertson BH, Jia XY, Tian H, Margolis HS, Summers DF, Ehrenfeld E. Antibody response to nonstructural proteins of hepatitis A virus following infection. J Med Virol. 1993;40:76–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Cristina J, Costa-Mattioli M. Genetic variability and molecular evolution of hepatitis A virus. Virus Res. 2007;127:151–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Gauss-Muller V, von der Helm K, Deinhardt F. Translation in vitro of hepatitis A virus RNA. Virology. 1984;137:182–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Lemon SM. Type A viral hepatitis. New developments in an old disease. N Engl J Med. 1985;313:1059–67.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Minor PD. Picornaviridae. Wien: Springer; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Siegl G, Weitz M, Kronauer G. Stability of hepatitis A virus. Intervirology. 1984;22:218–26.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. McCaustland KA, Bond WW, Bradley DW, Ebert JW, Maynard JE. Survival of hepatitis A virus in feces after drying and storage for 1 month. J Clin Microbiol. 1982;16:957–8.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Millard J, Appleton H, Parry JV. Studies on heat inactivation of hepatitis A virus with special reference to shellfish. Part 1. Procedures for infection and recovery of virus from laboratory-maintained cockles. Epidemiol Infect. 1987;98:397–414.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Parry JV, Mortimer PP. The heat sensitivity of hepatitis A virus determined by a simple tissue culture method. J Med Virol. 1984;14:277–83.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Mahoney FJ, Farley TA, Kelso KY, Wilson SA, Horan JM, McFarland LM. An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with swimming in a public pool. J Infect Dis. 1992;165:613–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Mbithi JN, Springthorpe VS, Boulet JR, Sattar SA. Survival of hepatitis A virus on human hands and its transfer on contact with animate and inanimate surfaces. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30:757–63.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Nainan OV, Brinton MA, Margolis HS. Identification of amino acids located in the antibody binding sites of human hepatitis A virus. Virology. 1992;191:984–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Ping LH, Lemon SM. Antigenic structure of human hepatitis A virus defined by analysis of escape mutants selected against murine monoclonal antibodies. J Virol. 1992;66:2208–16.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Tabor E, Purcell RH, Gerety RJ. Primate animal models and titered inocula for the study of human hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and non-A, non-B hepatitis. J Med Primatol. 1983;12:305–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Balayan MS. Natural hosts of hepatitis A virus. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S27–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Hilleman MR, Provost PJ, Villarejos VM, et al. Infectious hepatitis (hepatitis A) research in nonhuman primates. Bull Pan Am Health Organ. 1977;11:140–52.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Tsarev SA, Emerson SU, Balayan MS, Ticehurst J, Purcell RH. Simian hepatitis A virus (HAV) strain AGM-27: comparison of genome structure and growth in cell culture with other HAV strains. J Gen Virol. 1991;72(Pt 7):1677–83.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Cromeans T, Sobsey MD, Fields HA. Development of a plaque assay for a cytopathic, rapidly replicating isolate of hepatitis A virus. J Med Virol. 1987;22:45–56.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Kamar N, Bendall R, Legrand-Abravanel F, et al. Hepatitis E. Lancet. 2012;379:2477–88.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Armstrong GL, Bell BP. Hepatitis A virus infections in the United States: model-based estimates and implications for childhood immunization. Pediatrics. 2002;109:839–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Jacobsen KH, Koopman JS. Declining hepatitis A seroprevalence: a global review and analysis. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132:1005–22.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Hendrickx G, Van Herck K, Vorsters A, et al. Has the time come to control hepatitis A globally? Matching prevention to the changing epidemiology. J Viral Hepat. 2008;15 Suppl 2:1–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. FitzSimons D, Hendrickx G, Vorsters A, Van Damme P. Hepatitis A and E: update on prevention and epidemiology. Vaccine. 2010;28:583–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Daniels D, Grytdal S, Wasley A. Surveillance for acute viral hepatitis – United States, 2007. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2009;58:1–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Cooksley WG. What did we learn from the Shanghai hepatitis A epidemic? J Viral Hepat. 2000;7 Suppl 1:1–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Halliday ML, Kang LY, Zhou TK, et al. An epidemic of hepatitis A attributable to the ingestion of raw clams in Shanghai, China. J Infect Dis. 1991;164:852–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Stals A, Baert L, Van Coillie E, Uyttendaele M. Extraction of food-borne viruses from food samples: a review. Int J Food Microbiol. 2012;153:1–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Hadler SC, McFarland L. Hepatitis in day care centers: epidemiology and prevention. Rev Infect Dis. 1986;8:548–57.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Lednar WM, Lemon SM, Kirkpatrick JW, Redfield RR, Fields ML, Kelley PW. Frequency of illness associated with epidemic hepatitis A virus infections in adults. Am J Epidemiol. 1985;122:226–33.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Lemon SM. Type A, viral hepatitis: epidemiology, diagnosis, and prevention. Clin Chem. 1997;43:1494–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Kim YJ, Lee HS. Increasing incidence of hepatitis A in Korean adults. Intervirology. 2010;53:10–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Kim JI, Kim YS, Jung YK, et al. Factors influencing the severity of acute viral hepatitis A. Korean J Hepatol. 2010;16:295–300.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Santos DC, Martinho JM, Pacheco-Moreira LF, et al. Fulminant hepatitis failure in adults and children from a Public Hospital in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Braz J Infect Dis. 2009;13:323–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Kim JD, Choi JY, Park CH, et al. Clinical features of patients with fulminant hepatitis A requiring emergency liver transplantation: comparison with acute liver failure due to other causes. Korean J Hepatol. 2010;16:19–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Centeno MA, Bes DF, Sasbon JS. Mortality risk factors of a pediatric population with fulminant hepatic failure undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation in a pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2002;3:227–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Munne MS, Vladimirsky S, Moreiro R, et al. Molecular characterization of hepatitis A virus in children with fulminant hepatic failure in Argentina. Liver Int. 2008;28:47–53.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Mohd Hanafiah K, Jacobsen KH, Wiersma ST. Challenges to mapping the health risk of hepatitis A virus infection. Int J Health Geogr. 2011;10:57.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Dienstag JL, Szmuness W, Stevens CE, Purcell RH. Hepatitis A virus infection: new insights from seroepidemiologic studies. J Infect Dis. 1978;137:328–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Szmuness W, Dienstag JL, Purcell RH, et al. The prevalence of antibody to hepatitis A antigen in various parts of the world: a pilot study. Am J Epidemiol. 1977;106:392–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Hsu HY, Chang MH, Chen DS, Lee CY, Sung JL. Changing seroepidemiology of hepatitis A virus infection in Taiwan. J Med Virol. 1985;17:297–301.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Kremastinou J, Kalapothaki V, Trichopoulos D. The changing epidemiologic pattern of hepatitis A infection in urban Greece. Am J Epidemiol. 1984;120:703–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Stroffolini T, De Crescenzo L, Giammanco A, et al. Changing patterns of hepatitis A virus infection in children in Palermo, Italy. Eur J Epidemiol. 1990;6:84–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Shapiro CN, Hadler SC. Hepatitis A and hepatitis B virus infections in day-care settings. Pediatr Ann. 1991;20:435–41.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Fiore AE, Wasley A, Bell BP. Prevention of hepatitis A through active or passive immunization: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55:1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Wasley A, Samandari T, Bell BP. Incidence of hepatitis A in the United States in the era of vaccination. JAMA. 2005;294: 194–201.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Klevens RM, Kruszon-Moran D, Wasley A, et al. Seroprevalence of hepatitis A virus antibodies in the U.S.: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Public Health Rep. 2011;126:522–32.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Dagan R, Leventhal A, Anis E, Slater P, Ashur Y, Shouval D. Incidence of hepatitis A in Israel following universal immunization of toddlers. JAMA. 2005;294:202–10.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Wasley A, Grytdal S, Gallagher K. Surveillance for acute viral hepatitis–United States, 2006. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2008;57:1–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Shaw Jr FE, Shapiro CN, Welty TK, Dill W, Reddington J, Hadler SC. Hepatitis transmission among the Sioux Indians of South Dakota. Am J Public Health. 1990;80:1091–4.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Cheek JE, Hennessy TW, Redd JT, Cobb N, Bryan RT. Epidemic assistance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention involving American Indians and Alaska Natives, 1946-2005. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;174:S89–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Fischer GE, Thompson N, Chaves SS, et al. The epidemiology of hepatitis A virus infections in four Pacific Island nations, 1995-2008. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009;103:906–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Payne L, Coulombier D. Hepatitis A in the European Union: responding to challenges related to new epidemiological patterns. Euro Surveill. 2009;14:1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Carl M, Francis DP, Maynard JE. Food-borne hepatitis A: recommendations for control. J Infect Dis. 1983;148:1133–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Desenclos JC, Klontz KC, Wilder MH, Nainan OV, Margolis HS, Gunn RA. A multistate outbreak of hepatitis A caused by the consumption of raw oysters. Am J Public Health. 1991;81:1268–72.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Niu MT, Polish LB, Robertson BH, et al. Multistate outbreak of hepatitis A associated with frozen strawberries. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:518–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Rosenblum LS, Mirkin IR, Allen DT, Safford S, Hadler SC. A multifocal outbreak of hepatitis A traced to commercially distributed lettuce. Am J Public Health. 1990;80:1075–9.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. Newell DG, Koopmans M, Verhoef L, et al. Food-borne diseases – the challenges of 20 years ago still persist while new ones continue to emerge. Int J Food Microbiol. 2010;139 Suppl 1:S3–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Tricco AC, Pham B, Duval B, et al. A review of interventions triggered by hepatitis A infected food-handlers in Canada. BMC Health Serv Res. 2006;6:157.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Corey L, Holmes KK. Sexual transmission of hepatitis A in homosexual men: incidence and mechanism. N Engl J Med. 1980;302:435–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Robertson BH, Friedberg D, Normann A, Graff J, Flehmig B, Shouval D. Sequence variability of hepatitis A virus and factor VIII associated hepatitis A infections in hemophilia patients in Europe. An update. Vox Sang. 1994;67 Suppl 1:39–45; discussion 6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Schade CP, Komorwska D. Continuing outbreak of hepatitis A linked with intravenous drug abuse in Multnomah County. Public Health Rep. 1988;103:452–9.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  99. Sfetcu O, Irvine N, Ngui SL, Emerson C, McCaughey C, Donaghy P. Hepatitis A outbreak predominantly affecting men who have sex with men in Northern Ireland, October 2008 to July 2009. Euro Surveill. 2011;16:1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Rump BO, Visser O, Te Wierik MJ, Vennema H, Fanoy EB. Use of PCR for detection of faecal HAV as a screening tool in an outbreak of hepatitis A in daycare centres. Epidemiol Infect. 2013;141:549–55.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Peled T, Ashkenazi S, Chodick G, Aloni H, Yuhas Y, Lerman Y. Risk of exposure to hepatitis A virus among day-care workers in Israel: implications for preventive measures. Arch Environ Health. 2002;57:332–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Shapiro CN, Coleman PJ, McQuillan GM, Alter MJ, Margolis HS. Epidemiology of hepatitis A: seroepidemiology and risk groups in the USA. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S59–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Shaw Jr FE, Sudman JH, Smith SM, et al. A Community-wide epidemic of hepatitis A in Ohio. Am J Epidemiol. 1986;123:1057–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Andre FE. Universal mass vaccination against hepatitis A. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2006;304:95–114.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Lange WR, Frame JD. High incidence of viral hepatitis among American missionaries in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1990;43:527–33.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Hall AJ. Hepatitis in travellers: epidemiology and prevention. Br Med Bull. 1993;49:382–93.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Park JY, Lee JB, Jeong SY, Lee SH, Lee MA, Choi HJ. Molecular characterization of an acute hepatitis A outbreak among healthcare workers at a Korean hospital. J Hosp Infect. 2007;67:175–81.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Guet L, Desbois D, Roque-Afonso AM, Germain JM, Merle V. Investigation of a severe nosocomial outbreak of hepatitis A among healthcare workers and adult patients. J Hosp Infect. 2011;78:70–1.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Gibas A, Blewett DR, Schoenfeld DA, Dienstag JL. Prevalence and incidence of viral hepatitis in health workers in the prehepatitis B vaccination era. Am J Epidemiol. 1992;136:603–10.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Maynard JE. Viral hepatitis as an occupational hazard in the health care profession. Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute Press; 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  111. (AFHSC). AFHSC. Viral hepatitis A, active component, U.S. Armed Forces, 2000–2010; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Carl M, Kantor RJ, Webster HM, Fields HA, Maynard JE. Excretion of hepatitis A virus in the stools of hospitalized hepatitis patients. J Med Virol. 1982;9:125–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Tassopoulos NC, Papaevangelou GJ, Ticehurst JR, Purcell RH. Fecal excretion of Greek strains of hepatitis A virus in patients with hepatitis A and in experimentally infected chimpanzees. J Infect Dis. 1986;154:231–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Purcell RH, Feinstone SM, TIicehurst JR, Daemer RJ, Baroudy BM. Hepatitis A virus. Orlando: Grune & Stratton; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Sjogren MH, Tanno H, Fay O, et al. Hepatitis A virus in stool during clinical relapse. Ann Intern Med. 1987;106:221–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Cohen JI, Feinstone S, Purcell RH. Hepatitis A virus infection in a chimpanzee: duration of viremia and detection of virus in saliva and throat swabs. J Infect Dis. 1989;160:887–90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Noble RC, Kane MA, Reeves SA, Roeckel I. Posttransfusion hepatitis A in a neonatal intensive care unit. JAMA. 1984;252:2711–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Rosenblum LS, Villarino ME, Nainan OV, et al. Hepatitis A outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit: risk factors for transmission and evidence of prolonged viral excretion among preterm infants. J Infect Dis. 1991;164:476–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Report HS. Hepatitis A, among homosexual men—United States, Canada, and Australia. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1992;41:161–4.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Bloch AB, Stramer SL, Smith JD, et al. Recovery of hepatitis A virus from a water supply responsible for a common source outbreak of hepatitis A. Am J Public Health. 1990;80:428–30.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  121. Levy BS, Fontaine RE, Smith CA, et al. A large food-borne outbreak of hepatitis A. Possible transmission via oropharyngeal secretions. JAMA. 1975;234:289–94.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Enriquez R, Frosner GG, Hochstein-Mintzel V, Riedemann S, Reinhardt G. Accumulation and persistence of hepatitis A virus in mussels. J Med Virol. 1992;37:174–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Villarejos VM, Serra J, Anderson-Visona K, Mosley JW. Hepatitis A virus infection in households. Am J Epidemiol. 1982;115:577–86.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Asher LV, Binn LN, Mensing TL, Marchwicki RH, Vassell RA, Young GD. Pathogenesis of hepatitis A in orally inoculated owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus). J Med Virol. 1995;47:260–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Krawczynski KK, Bradley DW, Murphy BL, et al. Pathogenetic aspects of hepatitis A virus infection in enterally inoculated marmosets. Am J Clin Pathol. 1981;76:698–706.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Margolis HS, Nainan OV, Krawczynski K, et al. Appearance of immune complexes during experimental hepatitis A infection in chimpanzees. J Med Virol. 1988;26:315–26.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Taylor GM, Goldin RD, Karayiannis P, Thomas HC. In situ hybridization studies in hepatitis A infection. Hepatology. 1992;16:642–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Dotzauer A, Gebhardt U, Bieback K, et al. Hepatitis A virus-specific immunoglobulin A mediates infection of hepatocytes with hepatitis A virus via the asialoglycoprotein receptor. J Virol. 2000;74:10950–7.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  129. Glikson M, Galun E, Oren R, Tur-Kaspa R, Shouval D. Relapsing hepatitis A. Review of 14 cases and literature survey. Medicine (Baltimore). 1992;71:14–23.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Vallbracht A, Maier K, Stierhof YD, Wiedmann KH, Flehmig B, Fleischer B. Liver-derived cytotoxic T cells in hepatitis A virus infection. J Infect Dis. 1989;160:209–17.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Hashimoti E, Kojimahara N, Noguchi S, Taniai M, Ishiguro N, Hayashi N. Immunohistochemical characterization of hepatic lymphocytes in acute hepatitis A, B, and C. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1996;23:199–202.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Sanchez G, Pinto RM, Bosch A. A novel CD4+ T-helper lymphocyte epitope in the VP3 protein of hepatitis A virus. J Med Virol. 2004;72:525–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Baba M, Fukai K, Hasegawa H, Nakayabu M, Suzuki S. The role of natural killer cells and lymphokine activated killer cells in the pathogenesis of hepatic injury in hepatitis A. J Clin Lab Immunol. 1992;38:1–14 [corrected].

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Vallbracht A, Gabriel P, Maier K, et al. Cell-mediated cytotoxicity in hepatitis A virus infection. Hepatology. 1986;6:1308–14.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Kurane I, Binn LN, Bancroft WH, Ennis FA. Human lymphocyte responses to hepatitis A virus-infected cells: interferon production and lysis of infected cells. J Immunol. 1985;135:2140–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Perrella A, Vitiello L, Atripaldi L, et al. Impaired function of CD4+/CD25+ T regulatory lymphocytes characterizes the self-limited hepatitis A virus infection. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;23:e105–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Schulte I, Hitziger T, Giugliano S, et al. Characterization of CD8+ T-cell response in acute and resolved hepatitis A virus infection. J Hepatol. 2011;54(2):201–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. S W. Cytolytic T-lymphocyte epitopes are present on hepatitis A virus structural proteins. Turin: Edizion: Minerva Medica; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Lemon SM. Immunologic approaches to assessing the response to inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. J Hepatol. 1993;18 Suppl 2:S15–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Bower WA, Nainan OV, Han X, Margolis HS. Duration of viremia in hepatitis A virus infection. J Infect Dis. 2000;182:12–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Liaw YF, Yang CY, Chu CM, Huang MJ. Appearance and persistence of hepatitis A IgM antibody in acute clinical hepatitis A observed in an outbreak. Infection. 1986;14:156–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Villarejos VM, Gutierrez-Diermissen A, Anderson-Visona K, Rodriguez-Aragones A, Provost PJ, Hilleman MR. Development of immunity against hepatitis A virus by subclinical infection. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1976;153:205–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Liu JP, Nikolova D, Fei Y. Immunoglobulins for preventing hepatitis A. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(2):CD004181.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Rendi-Wagner P, Korinek M, Winkler B, Kundi M, Kollaritsch H, Wiedermann U. Persistence of seroprotection 10 years after primary hepatitis A vaccination in an unselected study population. Vaccine. 2007;25:927–31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Kabrane-Lazizi Y, Emerson SU, Herzog C, Purcell RH. Detection of antibodies to HAV 3C proteinase in experimentally infected chimpanzees and in naturally infected children. Vaccine. 2001;19:2878–83.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Robertson BH, Jia XY, Tian H, Margolis HS, Summers DF, Ehrenfeld E. Serological approaches to distinguish immune response to hepatitis A vaccine and natural infection. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S106–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Koff RS. Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of hepatitis A virus infection. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S15–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Tong MJ, el-Farra NS, Grew MI. Clinical manifestations of hepatitis A: recent experience in a community teaching hospital. J Infect Dis. 1995;171 Suppl 1:S15–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Ilan Y, Hillman M, Oren R, Zlotogorski A, Shouval D. Vasculitis and cryoglobulinemia associated with persisting cholestatic hepatitis A virus infection. Am J Gastroenterol. 1990;85:586–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Lee WM, Squires Jr RH, Nyberg SL, Doo E, Hoofnagle JH. Acute liver failure: summary of a workshop. Hepatology. 2008;47:1401–15.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  151. Vento S, Garofano T, Renzini C, et al. Fulminant hepatitis associated with hepatitis A virus superinfection in patients with chronic hepatitis C. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:286–90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Schiff ER. Atypical clinical manifestations of hepatitis A. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S18–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Willner IR, Uhl MD, Howard SC, Williams EQ, Riely CA, Waters B. Serious hepatitis A: an analysis of patients hospitalized during an urban epidemic in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:111–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Crowcroft NS, Walsh B, Davison KL, Gungabissoon U. Guidelines for the control of hepatitis A virus infection. Commun Dis Public Health. 2001;4:213–27.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Ajmera V, Xia G, Vaughan G, et al. What factors determine the severity of hepatitis A-related acute liver failure? J Viral Hepat. 2011;18:e167–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Fujiwara K, Yokosuka O, Fukai K, Imazeki F, Saisho H, Omata M. Analysis of full-length hepatitis A virus genome in sera from patients with fulminant and self-limited acute type A hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2001;35:112–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Durst RY, Goldsmidt N, Namestnick J, Safadi R, Ilan Y. Familial cluster of fulminant hepatitis A infection. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2001;32:453–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Rezende G, Roque-Afonso AM, Samuel D, et al. Viral and clinical factors associated with the fulminant course of hepatitis A infection. Hepatology. 2003;38:613–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Cohn EJ, Oncley JL, Strong LE, Hughes WL, Armstrong SH. Chemical, clinical, and immunological studies on the products of human plasma fractionation. I. The characterization of the protein fractions of human plasma. J Clin Invest. 1944;23:417–32.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  160. Stapleton JT. Passive immunization against hepatitis A. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S45–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Hall WT, Madden DL, Mundon FK, Brandt DE, Clarke NA. Protective effect of immune serum globulin (ISG) against hepatitis A infection in a natural epidemic. Am J Epidemiol. 1977;106:72–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Victor JC, Monto AS, Surdina TY, et al. Hepatitis A vaccine versus immune globulin for postexposure prophylaxis. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1685–94.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Wagner G, Lavanchy D, Darioli R, et al. Simultaneous active and passive immunization against hepatitis A studied in a population of travellers. Vaccine. 1993;11:1027–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Walter EB, Hornick RB, Poland GA, et al. Concurrent administration of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine with immune globulin in healthy adults. Vaccine. 1999;17:1468–73.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Higgins G, Wreghitt TG, Gray JJ, Blagdon J, Taylor CE. Hepatitis A virus antibody in East Anglian blood donors. Lancet. 1990;336:1330.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Ferguson M, Sands D, Lelie N. Hepatitis A immunoglobulin: an international collaborative study to establish the second international standard. Biologicals. 2000;28:233–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Howell D, Barbara JA, Brennan M. Hepatitis A virus, blood donors, and immunoglobulin preparations. Lancet. 1991;337:1165.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Tedder RS, Cameron CH, Barbara JA, Howell D. Viral hepatitis markers in blood donors with history of jaundice. Lancet. 1980;1:595–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Anonychuk AM, Tricco AC, Bauch CT, et al. Cost-effectiveness analyses of hepatitis A vaccine: a systematic review to explore the effect of methodological quality on the economic attractiveness of vaccination strategies. Pharmacoeconomics. 2008;26:17–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Cohen JI, Rosenblum B, Ticehurst JR, Daemer RJ, Feinstone SM, Purcell RH. Complete nucleotide sequence of an attenuated hepatitis A virus: comparison with wild-type virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987;84:2497–501.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  171. Vidor E, Dumas R, Porteret V, Bailleux F, Veitch K. Aventis Pasteur vaccines containing inactivated hepatitis A virus: a compilation of immunogenicity data. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2004;23:300–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Mao JS, Chai SA, Xie RY, et al. Further evaluation of the safety and protective efficacy of live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine (H2-strain) in humans. Vaccine. 1997;15:944–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Bovier PA. Epaxal: a virosomal vaccine to prevent hepatitis A infection. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2008;7:1141–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Ambrosch F, Andre FE, Delem A, et al. Simultaneous vaccination against hepatitis A and B: results of a controlled study. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S142–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Van Damme P, Van Herck K. A review of the efficacy, immunogenicity and tolerability of a combined hepatitis A and B vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2004;3:249–67.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Czeschinski PA, Binding N, Witting U. Hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccinations: immunogenicity of combined vaccine and of simultaneously or separately applied single vaccines. Vaccine. 2000;18:1074–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Joines RW, Blatter M, Abraham B, et al. A prospective, randomized, comparative US trial of a combination hepatitis A and B vaccine (Twinrix) with corresponding monovalent vaccines (Havrix and Engerix-B) in adults. Vaccine. 2001;19:4710–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Van Damme P, Van der Wielen M. Combining hepatitis A and B vaccination in children and adolescents. Vaccine. 2001;19:2407–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Knoll A, Hottentrager B, Kainz J, Bretschneider B, Jilg W. Immunogenicity of a combined hepatitis A and B vaccine in healthy young adults. Vaccine. 2000;18:2029–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Zhao YL, Meng ZD, Xu ZY, et al. H2 strain attenuated live hepatitis A vaccines:protective efficacy in a hepatitis A outbreak. World J Gastroenterol. 2000;6:829–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Wang XY, Xu ZY, Ma JC, et al. Long-term immunogenicity after single and booster dose of a live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine: results from 8-year follow-up. Vaccine. 2007;25:446–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Van Damme P, Banatvala J, Fay O, et al. Hepatitis A booster vaccination: is there a need? Lancet. 2003;362:1065–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Van Herck K, Crasta PD, Messier M, Hardt K, Van Damme P. Seventeen-year antibody persistence in adults primed with two doses of an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2012;8:323–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Bovier PA, Bock J, Ebengo TF, et al. Predicted 30-year protection after vaccination with an aluminum-free virosomal hepatitis A vaccine. J Med Virol. 2010;82:1629–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Green MS, Cohen D, Lerman Y, et al. Depression of the immune response to an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine administered concomitantly with immune globulin. J Infect Dis. 1993;168:740–3.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Leentvaar-Kuijpers A, Coutinho RA, Brulein V, Safary A. Simultaneous passive and active immunization against hepatitis A. Vaccine. 1992;10 Suppl 1:S138–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Fiore AE, Shapiro CN, Sabin K, et al. Hepatitis A vaccination of infants: effect of maternal antibody status on antibody persistence and response to a booster dose. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22:354–9.

    Google Scholar 

  188. Sharapov UM, Bulkow LR, Negus SE, et al. Persistence of hepatitis A vaccine induced seropositivity in infants and young children by maternal antibody status: 10-year follow-up. Hepatology. 2012;56:516–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Mayorga Perez O, Herzog C, Zellmeyer M, Loaisiga A, Frosner G, Egger M. Efficacy of virosome hepatitis A vaccine in young children in Nicaragua: randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:671–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Bialek SR, Thoroughman DA, Hu D, et al. Hepatitis A incidence and hepatitis a vaccination among American Indians and Alaska Natives, 1990-2001. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:996–1001.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  191. Lopalco PL, Salleras L, Barbuti S, et al. Hepatitis A and B in children and adolescents–what can we learn from Puglia (Italy) and Catalonia (Spain)? Vaccine. 2000;19:470–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Dominguez A, Salleras L, Carmona G, Batalla J. Effectiveness of a mass hepatitis A vaccination program in preadolescents. Vaccine. 2003;21:698–701.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Hanna JN, Hills SL, Humphreys JL. Impact of hepatitis A vaccination of Indigenous children on notifications of hepatitis A in north Queensland. Med J Aust. 2004;181:482–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Ashur Y, Adler R, Rowe M, Shouval D. Comparison of immunogenicity of two hepatitis A vaccines–VAQTA and HAVRIX–in young adults. Vaccine. 1999;17:2290–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Van Damme P, Mathei C, Thoelen S, Meheus A, Safary A, Andre FE. Single dose inactivated hepatitis A vaccine: rationale and clinical assessment of the safety and immunogenicity. J Med Virol. 1994;44:435–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Vacchino MN. Incidence of Hepatitis A in Argentina after vaccination. J Viral Hepat. 2008;15 Suppl 2:47–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Ellis A, Ruttimann RW, Jacobs RJ, Meyerhoff AS, Innis BL. Cost-effectiveness of childhood hepatitis A vaccination in Argentina: a second dose is warranted. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2007;21:345–56.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Prikazsky V, Olear V, Cernoch A, Safary A, Andre FE. Interruption of an outbreak of hepatitis A in two villages by vaccination. J Med Virol. 1994;44:457–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Sagliocca L, Amoroso P, Stroffolini T, et al. Efficacy of hepatitis A vaccine in prevention of secondary hepatitis A infection: a randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;353:1136–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Zamir C, Rishpon S, Zamir D, Leventhal A, Rimon N, Ben-Porath E. Control of a community-wide outbreak of hepatitis A by mass vaccination with inactivated hepatitis A vaccine. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20:185–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. MMWR. Update: Prevention of hepatitis A after exposure to hepatitis A virus and in international travelers. Updated Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) 2007;1080–4.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This chapter is an extensively revised and updated version of the chapter printed in the 4th edition of this book authored by HS Margolis, MJ Alter, and SC Hadler.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Medicine, Institute of Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Hadassah-Hebrew University Hospital, Ein-Kerem, 12000, Jerusalem, 91120, Israel

    Daniel Shouval MD

Authors
  1. Daniel Shouval MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daniel Shouval MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology, University of Alabama, Birmingham School of Public Health, Birmingham, Alabama, USA

    Richard A. Kaslow

  2. Departmant of Pediatrics, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA

    Lawrence R. Stanberry

  3. Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA

    James W. Le Duc

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Shouval, D. (2014). Hepatitis A Virus. In: Kaslow, R., Stanberry, L., Le Duc, J. (eds) Viral Infections of Humans. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7448-8_17

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7448-8_17

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-7447-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-7448-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation