Abstract
The term learning disability was created so that a categorical mechanism could be established by which monies would be made available to provide remedial services for those students who did not qualify for such services under the traditional categories of exceptionality. It probably was never intended to refer to a homogeneous and internally consistent diagnostic entity. The literature on learning disabilities contains innumerable discussions concerning whether learning disabilities exist, and if so, how they are defined and what constitutes an adequate diagnosis. At the heart of these debates, one finds disparate theoretical orientations of various professional groups. The current theories of learning disabilities and the controversies related to its diagnosis, definition, etiology, and remediation have existed in one form or another for almost a century.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Ahn, H., Prichep, L., John, E. R., Baird, H., Trepetin, M., & Kaye, H. Developmental equations reflect brain dysfunction. Science, 1980, 210, 1259–1262.
Ayers, F. W., & Torres, F. The incidence of EEG abnormalities in a dyslexic and a control group. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1967, 23, 334–336.
Bakker, D. J. Cerebral lateralization and reading proficiency. In Y. Lebrun & O. Zangwill (Eds.), Lateralization of language in the child. The Hague, Netherlands: Lisse, Swets, and Zetlinger, 1980. (From the symposium held in St. Ode, Belgium.)
Birch, H., & Belmont, L. Auditory-visual integration in normal and retarded readers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1964, 34, 852–361.
Birch, H., & Belmont, L. Auditory-visual integration, intelligence, and reading ability in schoolchildren. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1965, 20, 295–305.
Birch, H. G., & Lefford, A. Intersensory development in children. Monographs of the Society for Research on Child Development., 1963, 28.
Blank, M., Weider, S., & Bridger, W. Verbal deficiencies in abstract thinking in early reading retardation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1968, 38, 823–834.
Boder, E. Developmental dyslexia: A diagnostic approach based on three atypical readingspelling patterns. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1973, 15, 663–687.
Brase, D. A., & Loh, H. M. Possible role of 5-hydroxytryptamine in minimal brain dysfunction. Life Sciences, 1975, 16(7), 1005–1015.
Bruinincks, R. Teaching word recognition to disadvantaged boys. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1970, 3, 28–35.
Bryan, T. The effect of forced medication upon short-term memory of children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1972, 5, 605–609.
Burns, G. W., & Watson, B. L. Factor analyses of the revised ITPA with underachieving children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1973, 6, 371–376.
Clements, S. D. Minimal brain dysfunction in children—Terminology and identification. NINBD Monograph No. 3, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Public Health Service, 1966.
Coleman, M., Hart, P. N., Randall, J., Lee, J., Hijada, D., & Bratenahl, C. G. Serotonin levels in the blood and central nervous system of a patient with sudanophilic leukodystrophy. Neuropädiatrie, 1977, 8,(4), 459–466.
Connors, C. K. Cortical visual evoked response in children with learning disorders. Psychophysiology, 1971, 7, 418–428.
Connors, C. K., Kramer, K., & Guerra, F. Auditory synthesis and dichotic listening in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 1969, 3, 163–170.
Czudner, G., & Rourke, B. P. Simple reaction time in brain damaged and normal children under regular and irregular preparatory internal conditions. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1970, 31, 767–773.
Doehring, D. Visual spatial memory in aphasic children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1960, 3, 138–149.
Drake, W. E. Clinical and pathological findings in a child with a developmental learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1968, 1, 486–502.
Duffy, F. H., Denckla, M. B., Bartels, P. H., & Sandini, G. Dyslexia: Regional differences in brain electrical activity by topographic mapping. Annals of Neurology, 1980, 7, 412–420.
Dykman, R. A., Ackerman, P. T., Clements, S. D., & Peters, J. E. Specific learning disabilities: An attentional deficit syndrome. In H. R. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities (Vol. 2). New York: Grune & Stratton, 1971.
Eidelberg, D. S., & Galaburda, A. M. Symmetry and asymmetry of the human posterior thalamus: I. Cytoarchitectonic analysis in normal persons. Archives of Neurology, 1982, 34, 325–332.
Epps, S., McGue, M., & Ysseldyke, J. E. Interjudge agreement in classifying students as learning disabled. Psychology in the Schools, 1982, 19, 209–220.
Fenelon, B. Hemispheric effects of stimulus sequence and side of stimulation on slow potentials in children with reading problems. In D. A. Otto (Ed.), Multidisciplinary perspectives in event-related brain potential research. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1978.
Fischer, W. F., Lieberman, I. V., & Schankweiler, D. Reading reversals and developmental dyslexia: A further study. Cortex, 1978, 14, 496–510.
Fuller, P. W. Computer estimated alpha attenuation during problem solving in children with learning disabilities. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1977, 42, 149–156.
Galaburda, A. M., & Eidelberg, D. Symmetry and asymmetry in the human posterior thalamus: II. Thalamic lesions in a case of developmental dyslexia. Archives of Neurology, 1982, 39, 333–336.
Galaburda, A. M., & Kemper, T. Cytoarchitectonic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia. A case study. Annals of Neurology, 1979, 6, 94–100.
Geschwind, N., & Levitsky, W. Human brain: Left-right asymmetries in temporal speech region. Science, 1968, 161, 186–188.
Goldberg, A. M., & Silbergeld, E. K. Animal models of hyperactivity. In I. Hanin & E. Usdin (Eds.), Animal models in psychiatry and neurology. New York: Pergamon, 1978.
Grassi, J. Auditory vigilance performance in brain damaged, behavior disorders, and normal children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1970, 3, 302–304.
Greenberg, A. S., & Coleman, M. Depressed 5-hydroxyindole levels associated with hyperactive and aggressive behavior: Relationship to drug response. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1976, 33(3), 331–336.
Guthrie, J. T., & Goldberg, H. K. Visual sequential memory in reading disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1972, 5, 41–46.
Hier, D. B., LeMay, M., Rosenberger, P. B., & Perlo, V. P. Developmental dyslexia: Evidence for a subgroup with a reversal of cerebral asymmetry. Archives of Neurology, 1978, 35, 90–92.
Hughes, J. R. Electroencephalography and learning disabilities. In H. R. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1971.
Hughes, J. R., Leander, R., & Ketchum, G. Electroencephalographic study of specific reading disabilities. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1949, 1, 377–378.
Hughes, J. R., & Park, G. E. The EEG in dyslexia. In P. Kellaway & I. Peterson (Eds.), Clinical electroencephalography of children. Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell, 1968.
Hutton, J. T., Johnston, L., Shapiro, I., & Pirozzolo, F. J. Oculomotor programming disturbances in the dementia syndrome. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1979, 49, 312–314.
Hynd, G., & Cohen, M. Dyslexia. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1983.
Hynd, G. W., Obrzut, J. E., Weed, W., & Hynd, C. R. Development of cerebral dominance: Dichotic listening asymmetry in normal and learning disabled children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1979, 28, 445–454.
Ingvar, D. H., & Philipson, L. Distribution of cerebral blood flow in the dominant hemisphere during motor ideation and motor performance. Annals of Neurology, 1977, 2(3), 230–237.
Jansky, J. J., & deHirsch, K. Preventing reading failure: Prediction, diagnosis, and intervention. New York: Harper & Row, 1972.
Kennard, M. A., Rabinovitch, R., & Wexler, D. The abnormal electroencephalogram as related to reading disability in children with disorders of behavior. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1952, 67, 330–333.
Kirk, S. A., McCarthy, J. J., & Kirk, W. D. Examiner’s manual: Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (Rev. ed.). Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1968.
Lansdell, H. Theories of brain mechanisms in minimal brain dysfunctions. In H. E. Rie & E. D. Rie (Eds.), Handbook of minimal brain dysfunctions: A critical view. New York: Wiley, 1980.
LeMay, M. Morphological cerebral asymmetries of modern man, fossil man and non-human primate. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1976, 280, 389–366.
LeMay, M. Asymmetries of the skull and handedness. Journal of Neurological Sciences, 1977, 32, 243–253.
Leong, C. K. Lateralization in severely disabled readers in relation to functional cerebral development and synthesis of information. In R. M. Knights & D. J. Bakker (Eds.), Neuropsychology of learning disorders: Theoretical approaches. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1976.
Ludlow, C. L., Rapoport, J. L., Cardano, C. B., & Mikkelson, E. J. Differential effects of dextroamphetamine on language performance in hyperactive and normal boys. In R. M. Knights & D. J. Bakker (Eds.), Rehabilitation, treatment and management of learning disorders. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1978.
Lyle, J. G. Reading retardation and reversal tendency: A factorial study. Child Development, 1969, 40, 833–843.
Lyle, J. G., & Goyen, J. Visual recognition, developmental lag and strephosymbolus in reading retardation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1968, 73, 25–29.
Lyle, J. G., & Goyen, J. Effects of speed of exposure and difficulty of discrimination on visual recognition of retarded readers. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1975, 8, 613–616.
Marcel, T., Katz, K., & Smith, M. Laterality and reading proficiency. Neuropsychology, 1974, 12, 131–139.
Mattis, S. Dyslexia syndromes in children: Toward the development of syndrome-specific treatment programs. In F. J. Pirozzolo & M. C. Wittrock (Eds.), Neuropsychological and cognitive processes in reading. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
McKeever, W. F., & Van Deventer, A. D. Dyslexic adolescents: Evidence of impaired visual and auditory language processing. Cortex, 1975, 11, 361–378.
McReynolds, L. V. Operant conditioning for investigating speech sound discrimination in aphasic children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1966, 9, 519–528.
Muehl, S., Knott, J. R., & Benton, A. L. EEG abnormality and psychological test performance in reading disability. Cortex, 1965, 1, 434–440.
Musso, M. R., & Harter, M. R. Contingent negative variation, evoked potential, and psychophysical measures of selective attention in children with learning disabilities. In D. A. Otto (Ed.), Multisensory perspectives in event-related brain potential research, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1978.
Nielson, H., & Binge, K. Visuoperceptual and visuomotor performance of children with reading disabilities. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 1969, 10, 225–237.
Nottebohm, F. (1980) Brain pathways for vocal learning in birds: A review of the first ten years. Progress in Psychobiology and Physiological Psychology, 1980, 19, 85–124.
Obrzut, J. E. Dichotic listening and bisensory memory skills in qualitatively diverse dyslexic readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1979, 12, 304–314.
Orton, S. T. Specific reading disability—strephosymbolus. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1928, 10, 1095–1099.
Orton, S. T. Reading, writing, and speech problems in children. New York: Norton, 1937.
Osgood, C. Method and theory in experimental psychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1953.
Pirozzolo, F. J. Slow saccades. Archives of Neurology, 1978, 35, 618.
Pirozzolo, F. J. The neuropsychology of developmental reading disorders. New York: Praeger, 1979.
Pirozzolo, F. J. Eye movements and reading disabilities. In K. Kayner (Ed.), Eye movements in reading: Perceptual and language processes. New York: Academic Press, 1982.
Pirozzolo, F. J., & Hansch, E. C. The neurobiology of developmental reading disorders. In R. N. Malatesha & P. G. Aaron (Eds.), Neuropsychological and neurolinguistic aspects of reading disorders. New York: Academic Press, 1981.
Pirozzolo, F. J., & Rayner, K. Disorders of oculomotor scanning and graphic orientation in Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome. Brain and Language, 1978, 5, 119–126. (a)
Pirozzolo, F. J., & Rayner, K. The neural control of eye movements in acquired and developmental reading disorders. In H. Whitaker & H. A. Whitaker (Eds.), Studies in neurolinguistics, (Vol. 4). New York: Academic Press, 1978. (b)
Pirozzolo, F. J., & Rayner, K. Cerebral organization and reading disability. Neuropsychologia, 1979, 17, 485–489.
Pirozzolo, F. J., Rayner, K., Hansch, E., & Hynd, G. The measurement of cerebral hemispheric asymmetries in children with developmental reading disability. In J. Heilige (Ed.), Cerebral hemispheric asymmetry: Theory, method, and application. New York: Praeger, 1981.
Poppen, K. J., Stark, J., Eisenson, T., Forrest, T., and Wertheim, G. Visual sequencing performance of aphasic children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1969, 12, 288–300.
Preston, M. S., Guthrie, J. T., & Childs, B. Visual evoked responses (VERs) in normal and disabled readers. Psychophysiology, 1974, 11, 452–457.
Preston, M. S., Guthrie, J. T., Kirsch, J. T., Gertman, D., & Childs, B. VERS in normal and disabled adult readers. Psychophysiology, 1977, 14, 8–14.
Rapoport, J. L., Buchsbaum, M. S., Zahn, T. P., Weingartner, H., Ludlow, C., & Mikklesen, E. J. Dextroamphetamine: Cognitive and behavioral effects in normal prepuberal boys. Science, 1978, 199, (4328), 560–563.
Rayner, K. Eye movements in reading and information processing. Psychological Bulletin, 1978, 85, 618–660.
Risberg, J., Halsey, J. H., Wills, E. L., & Wilson, E. M. A hemispheric specialization in normal man studied by bilateral measurements of the regional cerebral blood flow: A study with the 133-3a inhalation technique. Brain, 1975, 98(3), 511–524.
Rosenberger, P. B., & Hier, D. B. Cerebral asymmetry and verbal intellectual deficits. Annals of Neurology, 1980, 8, 300–304.
Rosner, J. Language arts and arithmetic achievement and specifically related perceptual skills. American Educational Research Journal, 1973, 10, 59–68.
Ross, J. J., Childers, D. G., & Perry, N. W. The natural history and electrophysiological characteristics of familial language dysfunction. In P. Satz & J. J. Ross (Eds.), The disabled learner; Early intervention and treatment. Rotterdam: University of Rotterdam Press, 1973.
Rourke, B. P., & Czudner, G. Age difference in auditory reaction time of brain damaged and normal children under regular and irregular preparatory internal conditions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1972, 14, 527–539.
Rudnick, M., Sterriti, G. M., & Flax, M. Auditory and visual rhythm perception and rearing ability. Child Development, 1967, 37, 581–587.
Sabatino, D. A. The house that Jack built. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1983, 16, 26–27.
Senf, G. M. Development of immediate memory for bisensory stimuli in normal children and children with learning disabilities. Developmental Psychology, 1969, 6, 28.
Senf, G. M., & Fesback, S. Development of bisensory memory in culturally deprived dyslexic and normal readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1970, 61, 461–470.
Senf, G. M., & Freunal, P. C. Memory and attention factors in specific learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1971, 4, 94–106.
Silbergeld, E. K. Neuropharmacology of hyperkinesis. In W. B. Essman & L. Vasselli (Eds.), Current developments in psychopharmacology. New York: Spectrum, 1977.
Smith, C. M. The relationship of reading method and reading achievement to ITPA sensory modalities. Journal of Special Education, 1971, 5, 143–149.
Steritt, G. M., & Rudnick, M. Auditory and visual rhythm perception in relation to reading ability in fourth grade boys. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1966, 22, 859–864.
Vellutino, F. F. Toward an understanding of dyslexia: Psychological factors in specific reading disabilities. In A. L. Benton & D. Pearl (Eds.), Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Vellutino, F. F., Steger, J. A., Kaman, M., & Desetto, L. Visual form perception in deficient and normal readers. Cortex, 1975, 11, 22–30.
Vellutino, F. F., Steger, J. A., & Kandel, G. Reading disability: An investigation of the perceptual deficit hypothesis. Cortex, 1972, 8, 106–118.
Wada, J. A., Clarke, R., & Hamm, A. Cerebral hemispheric asymmetry in humans: Cortical speech zones in 100 adults and 100 infant brains. Archives of Neurology, 1975, 32, 239–246.
Webb, E. M., & Lawson, L. The EEG in severe speech and reading disabilities of childhood. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1956, 8, 168.
Wender, P. H. Minimal brain dysfunction in children. New York: Wiley, 1971.
Wender, P. H. A possible monoaminergic basis for minimal brain dysfunction. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 1975, 11(3), 36–37. (a)
Wender, P. H. The minimal brain dysfunction syndrome. Annual Review of Medicine, 1975, 26, 45–62. (b)
Wender, P. H., & Wender, E. H. Minimal brain dysfunction myth. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 1976, 130(8), 900–902.
Wepman, J. Test of auditory discrimination. Chicago: Language Research, 1958.
Whitaker, H. A., & Ojemann, G. A. Graded localization from electrical stimulation mapping of left cerebral cortex. Nature, 1977, 270(5632), 50–51.
Wilshire, C., Atkins, G., & Manfield, P. Piracetam as an aid to learning in dyslexia. Psychopharmacology, 1979, 65, 107–109.
Witelson, S. F., & Pallie, W. Left hemisphere specialization for language in the newborn: Neuroanatomical evidence of asymmetry. Brain, 1973, 96, 641–646.
Witelson, S. F., & Rabinovitch, M. S. Hemispheric speech lateralization in children with auditory-linguistic deficits. Cortex, 1972, 8, 412–426.
Wood, N. E. Auditory perception in children. Social and rehabilitation service research grant (RD-2574-S). Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 1971.
Yeni-Komshian, G., Isenberg, D., & Goldberg, H. Cerebral dominance and reading disability: Left visual field deficit in poor readers. Neuropsychologia, 1975, 13, 83–94.
Ysseldyke, J. E., Algozzine, B., &.Epps, S. A logical and empirical analysis of current practices in classifying students as handicapped (Research Report No. 92). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Institute for Learning Disabilities, 1982.
Zangwill, O., & Blakemore, C. Dyslexia: Reversal of eye movements during reading. Neuropsychologia, 1972, 10, 371–373.
Zurif, E. B., & Carson, G. Dyslexia in relation to cerebral dominance and temporal analysis. Neuropsychologia, 1970, 8, 351–361.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1985 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pirozzolo, F.J., Harrell, W. (1985). The Neuropsychology of Learning Disabilities. In: Hartlage, L.C., Telzrow, C.F. (eds) The Neuropsychology of Individual Differences. Perspectives on Individual Differences. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-3484-0_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-3484-0_8
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-3486-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-3484-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive