Abstract
Literature dealing with phytolith systematics is scattered in a wide variety of journals reflecting the diverse disciplines that contribute to or use phytolith analysis. Morphological information has been reported in geology, soil science and archaeology contexts as well as botany. In addition, much research is published in languages other than English; indeed, major centers of phytolith activity span the globe from Germany to Japan. The diverse nature of phytolith research and the wide range of applications have produced a literature that is often difficult for active participants to encompass. Newcomers to the field often “reinvent the wheel” in the search for morphological information. Clearly, a central source of phytolith systematic data would be useful.
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Citations and Annotations
Akai, S 1939 (On the ash figures of leaves of the rice plants transplanted from the different kinds of nursery beds and their susceptibilities to the blast disease.) Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 9: 223–235. (Japanese, English summary). Comparison of seedlings from humid and arid soils shows more phytoliths (especially bulliform cells) from the humid soil. Silicification of bulliform cells is inversely correlated to blast disease. 15 tables.
Amos, GL 1952 Silica in timbers. Australia Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Bulletin, Melbourne 267: 1–55. Lists silica content and distribution in tissues for 400+ taxa in 32 families. Non-accumulating genera and families lacking siliceous timbers are also listed. 4 plates (32 photos), 6 figures, 2 appendices.
Amos, GL and Dadswell, HE 1948 Siliceous inclusions in wood in relation to marine borer resistance. Australia Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Journal of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research 21:190–196. Differences in marine borer resistance of some tropical woods are correlated to total Si content and silica inclusions. Calcium oxalate and silica crystals have been reported in various species. 2 plates (8 photos), 1 table.
Andrejko, MJ and Cohen, AD 1984 Scanning electron microscopy of silicophytoliths from the Okefenokee swamp-marsh complex. In Cohen, AD, Casagrande, DJ, Andrejko, MJ and Best, GR, The Okefenokee Swamp: Its Natural History, Geology, and Geochemistry. Los Alamos, New Mexico, Wetland Surveys: 468–491. Phytoliths from 6 sedge and grass spp are compared in detail. 8 figures (38 photos), 3 tables.
Andrejko, MJ, Cohen, AD and Raymond, R, Jr 1983 Origin of mineral matter in peat. In Raymond, R, Jr and Andrejko, MJ, eds, Mineral Matter in Peat: Its Occurrence, Form, and Distribution. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Publication LA-9907-OBES: 3-24. Mineral matter in peat is derived from several sources. Authigenic minerals include silica and calcium oxalate deposits formed in plants. No photos, drawings or descriptions of phytolith shape or distribution. 6 figures, 2 tables.
Artschwager, E 1925 Anatomy of the vegetative organs of sugar cane. Journal of Agricultural Research 30: 197-221. Internal anatomy of Saccharum officinarum (1 var) is detailed. Brief mention of epidermal silica cells (see plate 5). 25 plates, 8 figures.
Artschwager, E 1930 A comparative study of the stem epidermis of certain sugarcane varieties. Journal of Agricultural Research 41: 853–865. Epidermal patterns of stem material differ between sugarcane varieties and can be used for identification. Various epidermal cells, including silica cells, are described (14 var). 9 figures, 1 table, 1 key.
Artschwager, E 1940 Morphology of vegetative organs of sugarcane. Journal of Agricultural Research 60: 503–549. A “descriptive outline” of cultivated sugarcane morphology is presented to facilitate identification of varieties. Numerous morphological characters are described, including distribution patterns of silica cells. 10 plates, 14 figures, 3 tables.
Artschwager, E 1942 A comparative analysis of the vegetative characteristics of some variants of Saccharum spontaneum. US Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 811: 1–55. Morphological comparison of Saccharum spontaneum (23 var) indicates a wide range of characters exhibited by this complex species. Vegetative characters, including silica cell patterns, identify varieties and distinguish this group from the noble canes. 26 figures, 4 tables, 1 key.
Baas, P, van Oosterhoud, E and Scholtes, CJL 1982 Leaf anatomy and classification of the Olacaceae, Octoknema and Erythropalum. Allertonia 3: 155–210. Leaf anatomy (described for all genera of Olacaceae) forms the basis for a new classification. Silicified mesophyll and crystalliferous epidermal cells are of taxonomic significance at generic level; silica bodies and crystal components are useful below genus level. 39 figures (37 photos), 3 tables, 1 key, 26 generic descriptions.
Bair, RA 1966 Leaf silicon in sugarcane, field corn and St. Augustinegrass grown on some Florida soils. Proceedings of the Soil and Crop Science Society of Florida 26: 64–70. Low cane production correlates with Si deficiency in soils. Dry weight of Si in lbs/tons is reported for 4 spp (including corn and cane) grown on various soils. Note: sawgrass is a sedge. 7 tables.
Baker, G 1959a Opal phytoliths in some Victorian soils and “red rain” residues. Australian Journal of Botany 7: 64–87. Opaline bodies in sediments are identified as phytoliths derived from plants rather than sponge spicules. 255 particles are illustrated from soils and a “red rain” residue. 5 figures, 3 tables.
Baker, G 1959b A contrast in the opal phytolith assemblages of two Victorian soils. Australian Journal of Botany 7: 88–96. Differences in phytolith soil assemblages are correlated with different vegetation. 158 particles are illustrated from the soils. 4 figures, 2 tables.
Baker, G 1959c Fossil opal-phytoliths and phytolith nomenclature. Australian Journal of Science 21: 305–306. Brief discussion of the word “phytolith.” Present usage is for “microscopic bodies of mineral matter secreted by a plant.” 5 categories are briefly described.
Baker, G 1960a Hook-shaped opal phytoliths in the epidermal cells of oats. Australian Journal of Botany 8: 69–74. Oats and other grasses in Australia develop hook-shaped phytoliths composed of a solid core and delicate sheaths on the distal portion. The layers reflect differences in timing of deposition. 26 shape types are illustrated. 2 figures.
Baker, G 1960b Phytoliths in some Australian dusts. Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne, Proceedings 72: 21–40. Phytoliths are common components of dust. 7 general shape groups are described and illustrated. 11 figures, 1 table.
Baker, G 1961a Opal phytoliths and adventitious mineral particles in wheat dust. Mineragraphic Investigations Technical Paper 4: 3–12. Wheat dust contains sharp small phytoliths that could be factors in transportation workers’ health problems. 33 shape types are illustrated from wheat dust. 1 figure (8 photos).
Baker, G 1961b Opal phytoliths from sugar cane, San Fernando, Philippine Islands. Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 14: 1–12. Processing releases sharp airborne particles that can be implicated as health risks. 20 shape types are illustrated from sugarcane. 1 figure (12 photos), 3 tables.
Baker, G 1968 Micro-forms of hay-silica glass and of volcanic glass. Mineralogical Magazine 36: 1012–1023. “Microtecktites” from ocean sediments could be fused plant phytoliths or volcanic glass form. Glass bodies from a fired haystack include fused and distorted forms. 2 figures (85 photos).
Baker, G, Jones, LHP and Wardrop, ID 1961 Opal phytoliths and mineral particles in the rumen of the sheep. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 12: 462–472. Phytoliths occur in plant feed and survive transport through the rumen to fecal material. 26 shape types are illustrated from 2 grass and 1 legume plant feed. 1 figure, 3 tables.
Balabko, PN, Prikhodka, VE and Ammosova, YM 1980 (Silica bioliths in plants and certain forest soils.) Biologicheski Nauki (Moscow) 12: 92–96. (Russian, unpublished translation by Glesser, C). Soils contain a great variety of silica bioliths (phytoliths and diatoms). 10 figures, 1 table.
Balan Menon, PK 1965 Guide to distribution of silica in Malayan woods. Malayan Forester 28: 284–288. Silica deposition in tissues is listed for 177 Malayan woods from 22 families. 1 table.
Bamber, RK and Lanyon, JW 1960 Silica deposition in several woods of New South Wales. Tropical Woods 113: 48–53. 9 spp sampled at increasing distances from the cambium were wet-ashed. Si was deposited not in new ray parenchyma, but in the cell lumen of inner sapwood as small particles and eventually as mature aggregates of possible taxonomic significance. 8 figures (8 photos), 1 table.
Bardin, SW and Bish, DL 1983 The occurrence of calcium oxalate minerals within aquatic macrophytes from Okefenokee Swamp. In Raymond, R, Jr and Andrejko, MJ, eds, Mineral Matter in Peat: Its Occurrence, Form and Distribution. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Publication LA-9907-OBES: 53-62. Whewellite, a crystalline form of calcium oxalate, was detected by XRD in 4 genera. Only Nymphaea and Gordonia exhibited definite crystals. 5 figures (5 photos).
Bargagli-Petrucci, SG 1902 Concrezioni silicee intracellulari nel legno secondario di alcune Dicotiledoni. (Intracellular silica concretions from secondary wood of some dicotyledons.) Malpighia 17: 23–27. (Italian). Discusses silica concretions in 8 families of dicots. No illustrations.
Barkworth, ME 1981 Foliar epidermes and taxonomy of North American Stipeae (Gramineae). Systematic Botany 6: 136–152. 10 each of 49 spp were studied as spodograms and wet-ashed. Focus is on silica bodies, which are described and measured and were mostly dumbbell to nodular but rectangular in some spp. 18 figures, 2 tables.
Barkworth, ME and Everett, J 1987 Evolution in the Stipeae: Identification and relationships of its monophyletic taxa. In Soderstrom, TR, Hilu, DW, Campbell, CS and Barkworth, ME, eds, Grass Systematics and Evolution. Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press: 251–264. Description of groups within the Stipeae includes silica body morphology. 4 figures (15 pho
Bartoli, F and Guillet, B 1977 Étude comparée des diagrammes phytolithiques et polliniques d’un podzol des Vosges gréseuses. (Comparative study of phytolith and pollen diagrams from a podzol on vosges sandstone.) Comptes-Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Académie des Sciences Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 284: 353-355. (French, English abstract). Movement of microfossils though sediment is controlled by species factors. Local vegetation changes are indicated by phytolith information. 1 figure (6 photos), 2 tables.
Benbasat, E 1976 (Studies on opaline silica deposition in the vegetative organs of some Poaceae grasses in Bulgaria.) Fitologiya (Bulgarska Akademiya Na Naukite) 5: 75-90. (Bulgarian, English abstract, unpublished translation by Howell, R.) Spodograms of 50 species (27 genera) indicate Si is deposited in walls of all epidermal cells. Phytoliths, however, form only in the specialized silica cells. 6 plates (36 photos), 1 table.
Bennett, DM (ms) 1980 The occurrence and accumulation of silicon in temperate cereals. PhD dissertation, University College of North Wales: 74 p. Much information on deposition of Si in various tissues and cell types of wheat, oats and barley. Si deposition in barley leaf tips is outlined; rye epicarp hairs were studied in addition to the other 3 crops. Species and cultivar differences in Si deposition were noted. 35 plates, 6 figures.
Bennett, DM 1982a An ultrastructural study on the development of silicified tissues in the leaf tip of barley (Hordeum sativum Jess). Annals of Botany 50: 229–237. Leaf tip silicification patterns in barley are similar in epidermal cells, sclerenchyma and intercellular spaces. Chemistry and mechanisms of silicification are discussed. 3 figures (18 photos).
Bennett, DM 1982b Silicon deposition in the roots ofHordeum sativum Jess, Avena sativa L. and Triticum aestivum L. Annals of Botany 50: 239–246. Si in seminal roots of barley, oats and wheat is confined to the endodermis, although specific locations vary between species. A positive function of strengthening is postulated. 2 figures (22 photos).
Bennett, DM and Parry, DW 1980 Electron-probe microanalysis studies of silicon in the elongating basal internodes of Avena sativa (L.), Hordeum sativum (Jess.) and Triticum aestivum (L.). Annals of Botany 45: 541–547. Si in the endodermal layer of stems of oats, barley and wheat follows 2 types of accumulation. Endodermal silicification appears to be a strengthening factor. 2 plates (33 photos).
Bennett, DM and Parry, DW 1981 Electron-probe microanalysis studies of silicon in the epicarp hairs of the caryopses of Hordeum sativum Jess., Avena sativa L., Secale cereale L. and Triticum aestivum L. Annals of Botany 48: 645–654. Elemental distribution and morphology of epicarp hairs is given for wheat, oats, barley and rye. Possible function and significance for cancer are discussed. 5 figures (20 photos).
Bennett, DM and Sangster, AG 1981 The distribution of silicon in the adventitious roots of the bamboo, Sasa palmata. Canadian Journal of Botany 59: 1680–1684. 2 samples per root were freeze-dried and studied by SEM and EPM. Si was confined to the endodermal cell walls. 7 figures (7 photos), 1 table.
Bennett, DM and Sangster, AG 1982 Electron-probe microanalysis of silicon in the adventitious roots and terminal internode of the culm of Zea mays. Canadian Journal of Botany 60: 2024–2031. 5 mature maize cultivars were studied by SEM, EDX and EPM. Roots had no solid Si deposits, unlike some other grasses. The highest Si levels in terminal internodes were in peripheral tissues, suggesting possible selection for insect resistance. Si shapes are not addressed. 23 figures (17 photos).
Bertoldi de Pomar H 1970 Fitolitos y zoolitos: Su significado geológico en sedimentos continentales. (Phytoliths and zooliths: Their geologic significance in continental sediments.) Boletin de la Asociacion Geologica de Córdoba 1: 21–31. (Spanish). Phytolith production in grasses, sedges, palms and the Podostemaceae is reviewed. 2 plates (87 drawings).
Bertoldi de Pomar H 1971 Ensayo de clasificación morfológica de los silicofitolitos. (Morphological classification of silicophytoliths.) Ameghiniana 8: 317–328. (Spanish, English abstract). Silica phytolith morphological classification is proposed. Groups (based on size) and morphotribes (based on shape) are defined. 1 table.
Bertoldi de Pomar H 1972 Opalo organogeno en sedimentos superficiales de la llanura Santafesina. (Biogenous opaline particles found in superficial sediments from the Santa Fe Province Plains.) Ameghiniana 9: 265–279. (Spanish, English abstract). Description of bioliths includes that of phytoliths from sedges, grasses, palms and the Podostemaceae. Line drawings are given. 2 plates (93 figures).
Bertoldi de Pomar H 1975 Los silicofitolitos: Sinopsis de su conocimiento. (Silicophytoliths: Synopsis of knowledge.) Darwiniana 19: 173–206. (Spanish, English summary). Summary of silica phytolith information includes distribution, morphology, deposition and the silica cycle. 7 plates (56 photos), 4 figures, 5 tables.
Bertoldi de Pomar H 1980 Analisis comparativo de silicobiolitos de diversos sedimentos continentales Argentinos. (Comparative analysis of silicobioliths from diverse continental Argentine sediments.) Revista, Asociación Geológica Argentina 35: 547–557. (Spanish, English abstract). Examination of six sediments indicates some bioliths are widespread (euritopic) and some are unique to an environment (stenotopic). 7 plates (43 groups), 1 figure.
Besson, A 1946 Richesse en cendres et teneur en silice des bois tropicaux. (Richness in ashes and purport of silica of tropical forests.) L’Agronomie Tropicale 1: 44–56. (French). Ash and Si content of over 100 species of tropical wood are reported (percentages). 3 figures (2 photos), 1 table.
Blackman, E 1968 The pattern and sequence of opaline silica deposition in rye (Secale cereale L.). Annals of Botany 32: 207–218. Si deposition in leaf and internode material is highest at leaf bases and culm internode apices. Silicification increases over time and shape types change, reflecting increasing epidermal differentiation. 5 figures, 5 tables.
Blackman, E 1969 Observations on the development of silica cells of the leaf sheath of wheat (Triticum aestivum). Canadian Journal of Botany 47: 827–838. Description of silica cell formation from cell differentiation to mature phytoliths. Both silica cells and rods are examined. 6 plates (50 photos), 15 figures.
Blackman, E 1971 Opaline silica bodies in the range grasses of southern Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany 49: 769–781. 26 spp (12 genera) were studied by light microscopy. Representative Si bodies for each genus are described in detail, drawn to scale, and discussed in relation to grass taxonomy. 30 figures (18 photos), 2 tables.
Blackman, E and Parry, DW 1968 Opaline silica deposition in rye (Secale cereale L.). Annals of Botany 32: 199–206. Distribution of silica bodies in leaf culm and inflorescence material was examined in cleared sections. Deposition in other cell types and cell walls is discussed briefly. 22 photos.
Blanchard, E and Chaussin, J 1933 Le Blé plante a silice. (Silica in wheat plants.) Comptes-Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 197: 188–190. (French). Total and soluble Si in wheat is given. 1 table.
Bombin, M (ms) 1984 On phytoliths, late Quaternary ecology of Beringia, and information evolutionary theory. PhD dissertation, University of Alberta: 163 p. 300 grass and 100 sedge spp were studied with light microscopy and SEM. Morphological patterns, names, locations are not listed. Classifies Si by anatomical origin (see Piperno 1983) and uses own terminology for shapes (eg, “selliform” for “saddle”). Suggests tracing grass evolution through phytolith geometry. 23 figures (57 photos), 1 table, 1 appendix.
Bonnett, OT 1972 Silicified cells of grasses: A major source of plant opal in Illinois soils. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No 742. Detailed report of grass silicification focusing on description of cell types and degree of Si. 3 subfamilies (Panicoids, Chloridoids, Festucoids) were identified. 13 figures (66 photos).
Borissow, G 1924 Über die eigenartigen Kieselkörper in der Wurzelendodermis bei Andropogon-Arten. (On the peculiar silica cells in the root endodermis ofAndropogon species.) Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft 42: 366–380. (German). Description of silica bodies in endodermal tissue ofAndropogon roots. 19 figures.
Borissow, G 1925 Rasdorskys Körperchen beim Ravenna-Gras. (Rasdorsky’s particles in Ravenna grass.) Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft 43: 178–184. (German). Description of particles in Erianthus ravennae. 9 figures.
Bowdery, D (ms) 1984 Phytoliths: A multitude of shapes. BA essay, Australian National University: 102 p. Survey of phytolith analysis as a technique for recovery of botanical information. Various laboratory techniques were tested; phytolith classification and orientation from several sources were presented. Distribution of phytolith shapes in Australasian taxa is summarized from the literature. Distinctive phytoliths from 3 spp are illustrated. 10 figures (9 photos), 9 tables, 4 appendices.
Bowdery, D 1985 Phytolith studies in Australian prehistory. Phytolitharien Newsletter 3(3): 4–5. Photo of a phytolith from Eucalyptus bridgesiana. No description or comparisons. 1 photo.
Bowdery, D 1989 Phytolith analysis: Introduction and applications. In Beck, W, Clark, A and Head, L, eds, Plants in Australian Archaeology, Tempus 1: 161–196, University of Queensland, Anthropology Museum. A review article of phytolith analysis with emphasis on techniques and applications. Illustrates phytoliths from 11 spp. 12 photos, 8 tables.
Bozarth, SR (ms) 1985a An analysis of opal phytoliths from rinds of selected Cucurbitaceae species. MA thesis, University of Kansas: 59 p. The results summarized in Bozarth (1987) are given in detail here. Especially useful for its review of deciduous tree leaf and gymnosperm phytoliths, detailed laboratory methods and details about the reference collection. 5 figures (17 photos), 8 tables.
Bozarth, SR 1985b The potential for identifying maize in archaeological sites with silicified ringed tracheids produced in cobs of selected maize varieties. Phytolitharien Newsletter 3(2): 3. These potentially diagnostic phytoliths tended to be larger in maize cobs than in other reference plants, and one was recovered from an archaeological soil sample.
Bozarth, SR 1986 Morphologically distinctive Phaseolus, Cucurbita, and Helianthus annuus phytoliths. In Rovner, I, ed, Plant opal phytolith analysis in archaeology and paleoecology: Proceedings of the 1984 Phytolith Research Workshop, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Occasional Papers of The Phytolitharien 1: 56–66. Spheres with scalloped surfaces were found in all domesticated and wild squash rinds studied and not in 60 other reference plants (not described here). “Phaseolus” phytoliths were hook-shaped hairs but may also occur in other families, according to Piperno’s discussion in same volume. 3 figures (12 photos), 7 tables.
Bozarth, SR 1987a Diagnostic opal phytoliths from rinds of selected Cucurbita species. American Antiquity 52: 607–615. C. maxima and C. pepo varieties from central Great Plains, US, had numerous spherical or hemispherical, deeply scalloped phytoliths. C. foetidissima had some, but dipper gourds (Lagenaria siceraria) and 60 other reference plants did not. Recovered some from an archaeological context. 2 figures (8 photos), 2 tables.
Bozarth, SR 1987b Opal phytolith analysis of edible fruits and nuts native to the Central Plains. Phytolitharien Newsletter 4(3): 9–10. Reports distinctive shapes in hackberry. Others not distinctive (3 spp). 14 spp lack phytoliths.
Bozarth, SR 1990 Diagnostic opal phytoliths from pods of selected varieties of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). American Antiquity 55: 98–104. Beans and pods were compared to 132 spp from the central plains, US. 30 hook-shaped hairs were significantly wider 6 microns from the tip in P. vulgaris than in 6 other dicots, including wild P. polystachios. Recovered some from archaeological contexts. 1 figure (4 photos), 2 tables.
Brandis, D 1907 Remarks on the structure of bamboo leaves. Transactions of the Linnean Society, Series 2, Botany, London 7: 69–92. Discussion of bamboo leaf anatomy includes silica deposits (pp 81-84). 4 plates (45 photos).
Brazle, FK, Harbers, LH and Owensby, CE 1979 Structural inhibitors of big and little bluestem digestion observed by scanning electron microscopy. Journal of Animal Science 48: 1457–1463. Leaf surfaces contain rows of phytoliths, trichomes and stomata. Si and cutin appear to inhibit digestion by rumen microorganisms. 14 photos.
Brown, DA 1984 Prospects and limits of a phytolith key for grasses in the central United States. Journal of Archaeological Science 11: 345–368. Multiple samples of different parts of 112 grasses and 12 non-grasses were dry-ashed. Phytolith shapes are defined, drawn to scale, and tabulated by species, genus and tribe. C3 and C4 plants may be distinguishable. Moisture and phytolith size appear to be related. 3 figures, 6 tables.
— 1986 Taxonomy of a midcontinent grasslands phytolith key. In Rovner, I, ed, Plant opal phytolith analysis in archaeology and paleoecology: Proceedings of the 1984 Phytolith Research Workshop, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Occasional Papers of The Phytolitharien 1: 89-102. Defines and illustrates phytolith shapes and provides a key to 112 spp, taking different parts into account. Provides identifications to tribe or subfamily levels. 1 figure, 6 tables.
Brown, FBH 1920 The siliceous skeleton of tracheids and fibers. Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin 47: 407–424. 13 spp (of 500 observed) are discussed and represented by illustrations of Tecoma sp (a South American wood). Methods included Schulze solution wet-ashing and dryashing. Longitudinal rods, branching more in some species than others, all contained Si although composition varied in families, genera and species. Desilicification caused almost complete loss of xylem rigidity. Taxonomy and terminology may be outdated. 5 figures, 1 table.
Brown, WV 1958 Leaf anatomy in grass systematics. Botanical Gazette 119:170–178. Transverse leaf sections of 101 spp were studied. 6 major groups are identified based on the presence of inner bundle sheaths, structure of outer bundle sheaths and chlorenchyma arrangement between bundles. Provides clear if probably dated review of grass evolution. 19 figures (18 photos).
Brydon, JE, Dore, WG and Clark, JS 1963 Silicified plant asterosclereids preserved in soil. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 27: 476–477. “Branched” particles of opal from soil correlate to Douglas fir asterosclereids (British Columbia, Canada). 2 figures.
Caceres, MR 1950 Los caracteres anatómicos foliares de Munroa mendocina y Blepharidachne benthamiana. (Leaf anatomical characteristics of Munroa mendocina and Blepharidachne benthamiana.) Revista Argentina de Agronomia 17: 233–240. (Spanish). Leaf anatomy indicates a panicoid type, leading towards reclassification as a chloridoid. Phytoliths are illustrated in situ. 5 figures.
Caceres, MR 1951 La anatomía foliar de “Scleropogon brevifolius” y sus relaciones taxonómicas. (Leaf anatomy of Scleropogon brevifolius and its taxonomic relations.) Revista Argentina de Agronomia 18: 129–135. (Spanish). The leaf anatomy is a panicoid type, indicating a change in taxonomic placement to chloridoids. Phytoliths are described. 3 figures.
Caceres, MR 1956 Los caracteres histofoliares de “Schismus barbatus” y sus relaciones taxonomicas. (Histofoliar characteristics of Schismus barbatus and its taxonomic relations.) Revista Argentina de Agronomia 23: 109–114. (Spanish). Leaf anatomy of Schismus barbatus is described as phragmitoid (intermediate between festucoid, panicoid and eupanicoid). Silica-cells are illustrated in situ. 3 figures.
Caceres, MR 1958 La anatomia foliar de las “Pappophoreae” de Mendoza y su valor taxonomico. (Leaf anatomy of the Pappophoreae of Mendoza and their taxonomic value.) Revista Argentina de Agronomia 25: 1–11. (Spanish). Leaf anatomy of 8 species is described, indicating a panicoid type (chloridoid subtype). Phytoliths are illustrated in situ. 5 figures.
Campos, AC de and Labouriau, LG 1969 Corpos silicosos de gramíneas dos Cerrados II. (Silica bodies of grasses of the Cerrados II.) Pesquisa Agropecuraria Brasileira 4: 143–151. (Portuguese, English abstract). From Labouriau 1983: Leaf, stem and inflorescence material from herbarium specimens was combination wet-and dry-ashed. Camera lucida drawings of silica bodies from 10 grass spp. 6 figures, 1 table.
Cavalcante, PB 1968 Contribuição ao estudo dos corpos silicosos das gramineas Amazonicas. I. Panicoideae (Melinideae, Andropogoneae, e Tripsaceae). [Contribution to the study of silica bodies from Amazonian grasses. I. Panicoideae (Melinideae, Andropogoneae and Tripsaceae)]. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Botanica, No 30. (Portuguese, English summary). From Labouriau 1983: Leaf, stem and inflorescence material from herbarium specimens was dry-ashed. Camera lucida drawings of silica bodies from 25 grass spp. 26 plates.
Chaffey, NJ 1983 Epidermal structure in the ligule of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Annals of Botany 52: 13–21. Description of abaxial epidermis of ligule includes the distribution of Si. Concentrations in silica cells and hair tips are correlated to low levels of epicuticular wax but other factors seem indicated also. 1 figure (6 photos), 1 table.
Chapuis, JL 1980 Méthodes d’étude du régime alimentaire du Lapin de Garenne, Oryctolagus cuniculus (L.) par l’analyse micrographique des fèces. (The use of microtechniques for the identification of the dietary items in the feces of European wild rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus.) Terre Vie 34: 159–198. (French, English summary). Epidermal fragments, including phytoliths, in feces provide dietary information. Identification of plants by phytoliths alone is more time consuming. 2 plates (12 photos), 6 figures, 8 tables.
Chattaway, MM 1953 The occurrence of heartwood crystals in certain timbers. Australian Journal of Botany 1: 27–38. Masses of crystals were observed in the heartwood of 52 Australian timber species of 19 families. Association with fungal hyphae is shown in some cases. Crystal appearance is dissimilar to calcium oxalate; those in one species are identified as ellagic acid. 7 figures (21 photos), 2 tables.
Chattaway, MM 1955 Crystals in woody tissues. Part I. Tropical Woods 102: 55–74. Location of 5 crystal types in over 1000 genera of tropical woody species is listed. 5 figures, 5 tables.
Chattaway, MM 1956 Crystals in woody tissues. Part II. Tropical Woods 104: 100–124. Distribution of rhomboidal, square or diamond-shaped crystals in 89 families. Location within tissue types and some important modifications are described. 5 figures, 1 table.
Chatters, RM (ms) 1941 A study of the ash of some American commercial woods with special reference to the existence of siliceous skeletons in the residues of cell walls. PhD dissertation, University of Michigan: 72 p. Examination of 17 conifers and 4 hardwoods indicates that siliceous sheets or tubes reflect original cell shape. However, an organized skeletal system is not present. 15 figures, 2 tables, 1 appendix.
Chatters, RM 1963 Siliceous skeletons of wood fibers. Forest Products Journal 13: 368–372. 18 dry-ashed North American spp (14 gymnosperms) yielded potentially diagnostic phytoliths but nothing to suggest that woody plants have a Si skeletal system. Includes details of both successful and unsuccessful methods and a review of plant Si research from 1813 through 1938. 7 photos, 1 table.
Cherouvrier, A, Gueguen, A and Lefeuvre, JC 1975 Essai de détermination du régime alimentaire d’animaux herbivores à l’aide des phytolithes siliceux des Graminées et des Cypéracées. Description, après étude en microscopie électronique à balayage, des principaux types de phytolithes rencontrés. (Determination of diet of herbivorous animals based on the analysis of siliceous phytoliths from Gramineae and Cyperaceae. Description of silica bodies based on scanning electron microscope study.) Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 281: 839-842. (French). Dietary regimes can be inferred from grass and sedge phytoliths in feces. 2 plates (26 photos).
Chowdbury, KA and Ghosh, SS 1954 Plant remains from Hastinapura. Ancient India 10: 120–137. Charred material and fragments from mud brick are identified as rice. Epidermal anatomy (including silica bodies) is illustrated for sugarcane. 5 plates (48 photos), 3 figures, 3 tables.
Clark, CA and Gould, FW 1975 Some epidermal characteristics of paleas of Dichanthelium, Panicum, and Echinochloa. American Journal of Botany 62: 743–748. Description of apical portion of paleas in 22 spp of 3 grass genera, focuses on shape and distribution of silicified papillae. Differences between genera were noted, as were some unusual features in 3 spp. 27 photos.
Clifford, HT and Watson, L 1977 Identifying Grasses: Data, Methods and Illustrations. St. Lucia, Queensland, University of Queensland Press: 146 p. Discusses merits of various types of keys. Data is presented on 297 attributes for 223 Australasian grass genera. Silica body presence and shape is included. 33 plates (198 photos).
Collins, SM (ms) 1979 Phytoliths as indicators of plant use at ancient Troy. MS thesis, University of Minnesota: 181 p. Comparison of 29 plant samples to 40 sediments indicates possible use of wheat and kalamia at ancient Troy. Phytoliths are described from 7 grasses, a reed and a sedge. The classification has been extensively modified by later work. 18 figures, 4 appendices.
Collins, SM, Rapp, G, Jr, Gifford, JA, Rondina, D and Thomson, M 1986 Phytolith analyses of samples from Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota. In Lynott, MJ, Richner, JJ and Thompson, M, eds, Archeological Investigations at Voyageurs National Park: 1979 and 1980, Midwest Archeological Center, Occasional Studies in Anthropology No 16: 363–398. Analysis of plants and sediments focused on grasses; computer analysis of sediments was made in terms of plant phytolith assemblages. The classification scheme has been extensively revised by Mulholland (1987). 8 figures (16 photos), 5 tables.
Coppenet, M, Ducet, G, Gurillot, J and Kahane, E 1947 Sur la silice de la paille et du grain de blé. (On silica of the straw and grain of wheat.) Annales Agronomiques NS 17: 564–567. (French). Percentage of Si and other mineral constituents is given for wheat straw and grain. No photos or descriptions.
Cummings, L Scott (ms) 1989 Coprolites from medieval Christian Nubia: An interpretation of diet and nutritional stress. PhD dissertation, University of Colorado: 204 p. Analysis of plant fossils and parasites indicated population nutritional stresses. Grass, sedge, palm, legume and okra phytoliths are discussed (pp 78-83) but not illustrated. 36 figures, 20 tables.
Dahlgren, RMT and Clifford, HT 1982 The Monocotyledons. A Comparative Study. Academic Press, New York: 87–90. Description of about 100 characters, including distribution, in the monocots is a review designed to assess taxonomic value and relative reliability. See especially section on silica bodies (pp 87-90, 2 figures) and calcium oxalate raphides (pp 90-92, 2 figures) for brief discussion of occurrence in families and shapes. An evaluation of superorder affinities is also presented.
Darbyshire, SJ and Aiken, SG 1986 Zizania aquatica var. brevis (Poaceae): A 1983 distribution survey and a scanning electron microscope study of epidermal features. Naturaliste Canadien (Rev. Ecol. Syst.) 113: 355–360. Description of epidermal features, including silica bodies, of the leaf and anthecia is presented. Differences are noted by comparison to var aquatica. 10 figures (9 photos).
Davies, I 1959 The use of epidermal characteristics for the identification of grasses in the leafy stage. British Grassland Society Journal 14: 7–16. Epidermal characteristics of 40 grasses assessed for taxonomic significance. Some characteristics, including silica bodies, are affected by growth stage. 1 plate (9 photos), 3 figures, 4 tables.
Dayanandan, P and Kaufman, PB 1973a A scanning electron microscope study of isolated guard cells. Proceedings of the Electron Microscopy Society of America, 31st Annual Meeting: 454–455. Description of shape and surface texture of guard cells from 9 genera (Psilotum, Equisetum, Cycas, Ceratozamia, Pinus, Ephedra, Welmtscha, Euphorbia, Allium). No mineralization data but shape morphology is useful. 4 photos.
Dayanandan, P and Kaufman, PB 1973b Stomata in Equisetum. Canadian Journal of Botany 51: 1555–1564. 6 spp and 2 hybrids were studied by SEM and light microscopy. Si knobs on stomata may distinguish between subgenera, and were similar despite other differences between field-grown and greenhouse plants. Detailed descriptions and clear illustrations. 30 figures (29 photos).
Dayanandan, P and Kaufman, PB 1976 Trichomes of Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabinaceae). American Journal of Botany 63: 578–591. Glandular and non-glandular hairs were compared to those on Humulus lupulus (hops) and Lantana camera. Fresh, dried, and burned samples were studied with SEM and EDX. Clear, detailed descriptions. 62 figures (50 photos).
Dayanandan, P, Kaufman, PB and Franklin, CI 1983 Detection of silica in plants. American Journal of Botany 70: 1079–1084. Methyl red, crystal violet lactone and silver ammine chromate stain silica in plant tissue. Examples from 11 Oryza spp. 15 photos.
Dayanandan, P, Hebard, FV, Baldwin, VD and Kaufman, PB 1977 Structure of gravity-sensitive sheath and internodal pulvini in grass shoots. American Journal of Botany 64: 1189–1199. 28 spp were studied with SEM and x-ray, and thin sections with light microscopy. Among other structural characteristics, pulvini remain unsilicified though Si accumulates above and below them. 43 figures (43 photos), 1 table.
Decker, HF 1964 An anatomic-systematic study of the classical tribe Festuceae (Gramineae). American Journal of Botany 51: 453–463. Examination of 135 genera indicates that Festuceae tribe is artificial. Characteristics (including silica body shapes) are used to identify several major phylogenetic groups. 14 figures, 1 table.
Deflandre, G 1963 Les phytolithaires (Ehrenberg): Nature et signification micropaléontologique, pédologique, et géologique. (Phytoliths [Ehrenberg]: Nature and micropaleontological, pedological, and geological significance.) Protoplasma 57: 234–259. (French). Review of Ehrenberg’s work on phytoliths focuses on morphology and classification. A parataxonomic approach is advocated; 4 paragenera are defined. 3 plates (54 photos), 69 figures.
Dengler, NG and Lin, EY-C 1980 Electron microprobe analysis of the distribution of silicon in the leaves of Selaginella emmeliana. Canadian Journal of Botany 58: 2459–2466. Si is present throughout the cell walls in sclereids and epidermal cells. Some stomata also have high proportions of Si. 12 figures (11 photos), 2 tables.
Dinsdale, D, Gordon, AH and George, S 1979 Silica in the mesophyll cell walls of Italian Rye grass (Lolium multiflorum Lam. cv. RvP.). Annals of Botany 44: 73–77. Freeze-dried samples were studied with TEM and EDX. Si content was similar with all methods. Shapes are hardly discussed. 1 plate (6 photos), 2 figures.
Djamin, A and Pathak, MD 1967 Role of silica in resistance to Asiatic Rice Borer, Chilo suppressalis (Walker), in rice varieties. Journal of Economic Entomology 60: 347–351. A negative correlation between Si content and resistance to Asiatic rice borer was noted on field tests of 12 rice var. Silica bodies are thought to interfere with the boring activities. 5 figures (3 photos), 1 table.
Dore, WG 1960 Silica deposits in leaves of Canadian grasses. Canadian Society of Agronomy, Proceedings (of the 6th Annual Meeting, Guelph, Ontario) 6: 96–99. Brief presentation of silica body location (over veins only vs intervein and vein areas) and shape (rectangular, simple rounded or lozenge, saddle-shaped, dumbbell-shaped, butterfly-shaped) in about 40 genera.
Dumitrica, P 1973 Phytolitharia. In Kaneps, AG, ed, Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 13(2):940–943. Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office. Description of phytoliths recovered from ocean cores in the Mediterranean is by parataxa, ie, artificial taxonomic units as used by Ehrenberg (1854). Illustrations and descriptions are not accompanied by attempts to identify the plant origin. 1 plate (51 figures).
Dunn, ME 1983 Phytolith analysis in archaeology. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 8: 287–297. Tests of Pearsall’s (1978) maize-indicative phytoliths show large crosses in Tripsacum dactyloides and Sorghum halepense. No data are presented on percentages of the crosses or size ranges. 1 figure, 2 tables.
Duval-Jouve, MJ 1872 Sur une forme de cellules épidermiques qui parait propre aux Cypéracées. (On a form of epidermal cells that appear characteristic of Cyperaceae.) Comptes-Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 75: 371–372. (French). Conical epidermal cells appear unique to sedges (as opposed to Typhaceae, Juncaceae and Gramineae). No illustrations.
Edwards, WN 1935 The systematic value of cuticular characters in recent and fossil angiosperms. Biological Review 10: 442–459. Summary of epidermal (cuticular) research focuses on spodograms in recent and fossil monocots and dicots. Phytoliths (including calcium types) are mentioned. No illustrations but good summary of earlier literature.
Ehrenberg, CG 1846 Zusätze zu den Mittheilungen über die vulkanischen Phytolitharien der Insel Ascension. (Promise of the report of the volcanic phytolitharien of Ascension Island.) Monatsbericht der Koiglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 191–202. (German). Comparison of phytoliths from volcanic contexts to 30 Egyptian grasses and sedges. Lists plant origin of the various “Phytolitharia” (parataxonomic).
Ehrenberg, CG 1854 Mikrogeologie. (Microgeology). (German). Leipzig, Leopold Voss, 2 vols. Description and illustration of microfossils extracted from sediments worldwide. Phytolitharia are classified by genus and species designations. Numerous drawings.
Eleuterius, LN and Lanning, FC 1987 Silica in relation to leaf decomposition of Juncus roemerianus. Journal of Coastal Research 3: 531–534. Relative Si content of leaves increases as decomposition advances. Leaves 8 years old are just siliceous casts. No descriptive data are provided. 1 figure.
Ellis, RP 1979 A procedure for standardizing comparative leaf anatomy in the Poaceae. II. The epidermis as seen in surface view. Bothalia 12: 641–671. Essential reference. Gives nondichotomous “keys,” each with about 40 characters drawn to scale and assigned numbers, for 9 structures including silica bodies; discusses silicification of the other 8 structures. Does not tie characters to tribes or genera. Summarizes anatomical terminology and taxonomic significance of structural variability. More than 250 figures.
Engel, W 1953 Untersuchungen über die Kieselsäure-Verbindungen im Roggenhalm. (Investigation on the silica acid bound in rye stalks.) Planta 41: 358–390. (German). Percentage data of silica under various experimental conditions. 11 photos, 8 tables.
Esau, K 1977 Anatomy of Seed Plants. Second edition, New York, John Wiley & Sons: 550 p. Textbook cited widely for standard terminology; see especially pp 147-180. Discusses calcium oxalate and Si bodies very briefly.
Figueiredo, RCL and Handro, W 1971 Corpos silicosos de gramíneas dos Cerrados V. (Silica bodies of grasses from Cerrados V.) III Simposio sobre o Cerrado: 215–230. (Portuguese, English summary). From Labouriau 1983: Leaf, stem and inflorescence material from herbarium specimens was combination wet-and dry-ashed. Camera lucida drawings of silica bodies from 13 grass spp. 13 figures.
Flores, EM, Espinoza, AM and Kozuka, Y 1977 Observaciones sobre la epidermis foliar de Zea mays L. al microscopio electrónico de rastreo. (Observations on the leaf epidermis of Zea mays L. by scanning electron microscope.) Revista de Biologia Tropical 25: 123–135. (Portuguese, English abstract). Epidermal characteristics (hairs, stomata, silica-cells) are described for maize leaf. 18 figures.
Fontana, P 1954 Studies on the deposition of silica on the leaves of the grass Panicum maximum. Revista Brasiliera de Biologica 14: 35–40. Silica extracted from leaves was measured for optical density, suggesting an enzymatic nature of silica deposition. 1 photo of the spicules (trichomes). 6 figures, 1 table.
Frey-Wyssling, A 1930a Vergleich zwischen der Ausscheidung von Kieselsäure und Kalziumsalzen in der pflanze. (Comparison between the secretions of silica and calcium in plants.) Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft 48: 184–191. (German). Relates mechanism of deposition to particle chemistry and cell/tissue type. No figures.
Frey-Wyssling, A 1930b Über die Ausscheidung der Kieselsäure in der Pflanze. (On the secretion of silicic acid in plants.) Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft 27: 179–183. (German). Review of silica in plants relates deposits to transpiration. Tropical and subtropical flora and tissues near transpiration are favored for deposition. No illustrations.
Frison, E 1948 On some typical forms of silica found in plants. Microscope 7: 38–45. Short survey of silica in plants mentions tabashir, Equisetum, diatoms, grasses, palms, ivory-nuts, stegmata and silica in wood. Resistance to shipworm boring is related to silica content of some woods. 3 photos.
Frohnmeyer, M 1914 Die Entstehung und Ausbildung der Kieselzellen bei den Gramineen. (The origin and development of silica-cells in the Gramineae.) Bibliotheca Botanica 21: 1–41. (German). Description of development of silica cells and silica bodies in grasses. Three types are defined. 2 plates (33 figures).
Fujiwara, H 1976 Investigation on the remains of crops in ancient times by plant opal analysis. Kokogaku Sasshi (Archaeological Journal, Japan) 62(2): 148–156. Description of leaf anatomy. Note photos of phytoliths from plants. 3 plates (13 photos), 5 figures.
Garber, LW (ms) 1966 Influence of volcanic ash on the genesis and classification of two spodosols in Idaho. MS thesis, University of Idaho: 155 p. The origin of two spodosols was related to volcanic ash content. Two types of phytoliths were recognized; one was correlated to Douglas fir (pp 72-77). Presence of phytoliths in Douglas fir was related to ash content of the soil. 16 figures, 14 tables.
Gascho, GJ 1977 Silicon status of Florida sugarcane. Soil and Crop Science Society of Florida, Proceedings 36: 188–191. Si levels in sugarcane and field soils are related to sugar tonnages and freckling of the plants. High Si in soil and tissues prevents freckling. No photos/figures or descriptions of phytoliths or tissue/cell location data. 4 tables.
Geis, JW (ms) 1972 Biogenic silica in selected plant materials. PhD dissertation, State University of New York, Syracuse University: 102 p. 3 grasses, 36 deciduous angiosperms and leaf litter representing tall-grass prairie and forest of central Illinois, US, were wet-ashed. Clear, detailed descriptions. 15 plates (125 photos), 5 tables, 7 appendices.
Geis, JW 1973 Biogenic silica in selected species of deciduous angiosperms. Soil Science 116: 113–130. Partial summary of dissertation above. Si content varied within families and genera. Many shapes resembled grass phytoliths, but some epidermal cell differences may be diagnostic. 6 plates (51 photos, much clearer than dissertation), 1 table.
Geis, JW 1978 Biogenic opal in three species of Gramineae. Annals of Botany 42: 1119–1129. Examination of all parts of Andropogon gerardi, Sorghastrum nutans and Panicum virgatum indicates phytoliths occur in many tissues and cell types. A type unique to roots is formed by silicification of the ITW of the endodermis. 3 plates (58 photos), 1 table.
Geis, JW 1986 Characteristics of biogenic opaline silica in angiosperm and coniferous trees. Phytolitharien Newsletter 4(2): 3–11. Samples show fragments predominating; over 93% of phytoliths from forest leaf litter were finer than 20 urn. Potentially diagnostic phytoliths present in foliage (and only foliage) in Ulmaceae, Moraceae and Aceraceae. Fabaceae and Lauraceae had less Si. Posthumous publication of 1984 presentation to American Association for the Advancement of Science. 3 tables.
Genua, JM and Hillson, CJ 1985 The occurrence, type and location of calcium oxalate crystals in the leaves of fourteen species of Araceae. Annals of Botany 56: 351–361. Type and tissue location of crystals is reported for 14 spp. Druses, raphides and prismatics were identified as calcium oxalate; crystal sand and variations are other calcium compounds. 4 figures (9 photos), 3 tables.
Gibson, AC and Horak, KE 1978 Systematic anatomy and phylogeny of Mexican columnar cacti. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 65: 999–1057. Examination of 64 spp (Mexico, West Indies, South and Central America) yielded data on morphology, biochemistry and anatomy. Both silica bodies and calcium oxalate crystals are reported. 34 figures (32 photos), 2 tables.
Gibson, RJH 1893 On the siliceous deposit in the cortex of certain species of Selaginella, Spr. Annals of Botany 7: 355–367. 16 of 52 spp wet-ashed had Si bodies, described in terms of the plant parts. Taxonomy and terminology may be out of date. 10 figures.
Gottwald, H 1980 “Louro Preto” — found to be the first silica-bearing cordia (Cordia glabrata, Boraginaceae). International Association of Wood Anatomists, Bulletin NS 1: 55–59. ‘Louro preto’ is identified to Cordia glabrata. Si inclusions and oxalate crystals are present in the wood. 6 photos.
Gould, FW 1968 Grass Systematics. New York, McGraw-Hill. Systematic treatment of the grasses in the US includes silica cell shape information (based on Metcalfe 1960) in description of subfamilies and tribes (pp 97-118). Information is also presented in leaf epidermis section (pp 36-38, 1 figure).
Gould, FW and Shaw, RB 1983 Grass Systematics. College Station, Texas, Texas A & M University Press: 397 p. Comprehensive treatment of grass taxonomy includes data on silica bodies following Metcalfe (1960). Note brief description (pp 36-38, 2 figures) and occurrence in subfamilies and tribes (pp 107, 111-130).
Govindarajalu, E 1968 The systematic anatomy of South Indian Cyperaceae: Cyperus L subgen, Kyllinga (Rottb.) Suringar. Journal of the Linnean Society of London. Botany 62: 41–58. Anatomical description and comparison of 7 taxa indicate two broad groups. Leaf and culm descriptions include silica bodies but not in detail. 5 figures.
Govindarajalu, E 1975 Systematic anatomy of South Indian Cyperaceae: Eleocharis R. Br., Rhynchospora Vahl and Scleria Bergius. Adansonia 14: 581–632. Description and comparison of Eleocharis (8 spp), Rhynchospora (5 spp) and Scleria (11 spp) indicate separation into 3, 2 and 2 groups, respectively. Anatomical information includes distribution and description of silica bodies. 10 plates, 3 keys.
Govindarajalu, E and Thanyakumar, S 1977 The vegetative anatomy of Freycinetia sumatrana Hemsl. and F. rigidifolia Hemsl. along with the comparative study of shoot apex organization in F. rigidifolia and Fandanus tectorius Soland. Adansonia 17: 59–76. Description and comparison of 2 spp of Freycinetia (Pandanaceae) from the Andamans show distinct differences. Occurrence of silica bodies and crystals is one anatomical characteristic noted. 5 plates.
Grob, A 1896 Beitrage zur Anatomie der Epidermis der Gramineenblätter. (Contribution on anatomy of the epidermis of Gramineae leaves.) Bibliotheca Botanica 36: 1–122. (German). Description of grass leaf anatomy, including silica cells. 10 plates.
Gueguen, A, Cherouvrier, A and Lefeuvre, JC 1975 Essai de détermination du régime alimentaire d’animaux herbivores à l’aide des phytolithes siliceux des Graminées et des Cypéracées.
Application à l’étude du regime alimentaire des Orthoptères Acridiens. (Determination of the diet of herbivorous animals based on the analysis of the siliceous phytoliths of Gramineae and Cyperaceae. Application to diet of the Acridid Orthoptera.) Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 281: 929-932. (French). Grass silica phytoliths from feces yield information on dietary regimes. 2 plates (25 photos), 2 tables.
Guignard, G 1988 Les phytolithes chez le genre Dactylis tétraploïde. (Phytoliths in the tetraploid genus Dactylis.) Canadian Journal of Botany 66: 1047–1053. (French, English abstract). Dactylis phytoliths are described and compared between wild and cultivated plants. Morphological affinities are confirmed. 24 figures (photos), 2 tables.
Haberlandt, G 1914 Physiological Plant Anatomy. London, MacMillan and Co, Ltd. This book on anatomy includes some data on Si and calcium salts in plants. Note silicified hairs of Urtica (pp 129-131, 2 figures), cystoliths (pp 536-537, 1 figure), silica deposits (pp 537-539, 1 figure) and deposits in wood (p 685).
Handreck, KA and Jones, LHP 1968 Studies of silica in the oat plant. IV. Silica content of plant parts in relation to stage of growth, supply of silica, and transpiration. Plant and Soil 29: 449–459. Si content of Avena is correlated to growth stage and Si supply. Similar distribution patterns may be related to transpiration. 2 figures, 5 tables.
Hansen, DJ, Dayanandan, P, Kaufman, PB and Brotherson, JD 1976 Ecological adaptations of salt marsh grass, Distichlis spicata (Gramineae), and environmental factors affecting its growth and distribution. American Journal of Botany 63: 635–650. Investigation of environmental conditions and adaptations of salt marsh grass. Leaf anatomy, including silica bodies, is described; silicified trichomes receive special attention as a possible cooling mechanism. 37 figures (27 photos).
Harbers, LH, Raiten, DJ and Paulsen, GM 1981 The role of plant epidermal silica as a structural inhibitor of rumen microbial digestion in steers. Nutrition Reports International 24: 1057–1066. Two grasses (Festuca arundinacea and Andropogon gerardi) grown with and without Si were subjected to rumen digestion at 30 days and 60 days growth. Si at 30 days prevented cuticular rupture by microbes, but by 60 days other structures prevented rupture in both preparations. 6 figures (26 photos).
Harbers, LH and Thouvenelle, ML 1980 Digestion of corn and sorghum silage observed by scanning electron microscopy. Journal of Animal Science 50: 514–526. Degradation of corn and sorghum after digestion in steers was assessed by SEM. Si in epidermis of leaves and stems appears to inhibit digestion. 14 figures (37 photos).
Hart, DM 1988 The plant opal content in the vegetation and sediment of a swamp at Oxford Falls, New South Wales, Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 36: 159–170. Phytoliths are described for 10 spp: Xanthorrhoea resinosa, Gahnia sieberana, Entolasia stricta, Eucalyptus gummifera, Leptospermum flavescens, Baksia aspleniifolia, Acacia schinoides, Casuarina distyla, Pteridium esculentum, and Gleichenia dicarpa. Spheres, rods and sheets are most common; no diagnostics were identified. 3 figures (18 photos), 2 tables.
Hauke, RL 1978a Microreplicas as a technique for rapid evaluation of surface silica micromorphology in Equisetum. American Fern Journal 68: 37–40. Si deposition patterns on surfaces of Equisetum are taxonomically useful. Microreplicas on plastic cover slips are recommended as easier and quicker than SEM analysis. 6 photos.
Hauke, RL 1978b A taxonomic monograph of Equisetum subgenus Equisetum. Nova Hedwigia 30: 385–455. Thorough review of the subgenus based on 8 spp, which are described. Includes morphology, classification, distribution, evolution and other material. Surface Si micromorphology is included. 65 figures, 3 tables.
Hauke, RL 1979 Equisetum ramosissimwn in North America. American Fern Journal 69: 1–5. Identification of E. ramosissimum vs E. x ferrissii was made from SEM analysis of surface Si micromorphology. 10 photos (4 of silica).
Hayward, DM and Parry, DW 1973 Electron-probe microanalysis studies of silica distribution in barley (Hordeum sativum L.). Annals of Botany 37: 579–591. Si deposition in culm, leaf and inflorescence varies with age of tissue and cell type. Metabolic control rather than passive deposition from transpiration is suggested by deposition within the leaves. 3 plates (36 photos), 4 figures.
Hayward, DM and Parry, DW 1975 Scanning electron microscopy of silica deposition in the leaves of barley (Hordeum sativum L.). Annals of Botany 39: 1003–1009. Examination of in situ and disaggregated bodies shows rods, “hats”, prickle bodies and other cell types. Two processes are suggested, one involving the secondary wall and one the cell lumina. 2 plates (24 photos).
Hayward, DM and Parry, DW 1980 Scanning electron microscopy of silica deposits in the culms, floral bracts, and awns of barley (Hordeum sativum Jess.). Annals of Botany 46: 541–548. Si deposits are described for internodes, bracts and awns of barley. The types of cells are described, including shape. 2 plates (26 photos).
Helbaek, H 1959 How farming began in the Old World. Archaeology 12: 183–189. Reviews hypotheses about domestication and spread of Old World crops. Silica skeletons are one type of archaeological evidence for plants and cultivation. 11 photos.
Helbaek, H 1960 Cereals and weed grasses in phase A. In Braidwood, RJ and Braidwood, LS, eds, Excavations in the Plain of Antioch I, University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications Volume 61, University of Chicago Press, Appendix II: 540-543. Imprints and silica skeletons of emmer, barley, oat grass and rye grass were recovered from sherds. 11 photos (3 of silica skeletons).
— 1961 Studying the diet of ancient man. Archaeology 14: 95–101. Brief review of various botanical remains found in archaeological contexts. Silica skeletons of four crops are illustrated. 14 figures.
Hillis, WE and de Silva, D 1979 Inorganic extraneous constituents of wood. Holzforschung 33: 47–53. 11 woody spp were examined by SEM and x-ray analysis. Si, Ca and Al salt deposits were identified in ray parenchyma, vessels, and fibrous elements. 8 photos, 3 tables.
Hirata, T, Saiki, H and Harada, H 1972 (Observation of crystals and silica inclusions in parenchyma cells of certain tropical woods by scanning electron microscope.) Kyoto Daigaku. Nogakubu. (Bulletin of the Kyoto University Forests) 44: 194–199. (Japanese, English summary, unpublished translation by Williams, V and Mulholland, S.) Si and calcium oxalate crystals are described from 18 spp (9 families) of tropical woods. Different morphology and structure distinguish the two materials. 1 table.
Hodson, MJ 1986 Silicon deposition in the roots, culm and leaf of Phalaris canariensis L. Annals of Botany 58: 167–177. Specimens were studied by SEM, EPM and light microscopy. Si deposited in all parts is clearly described and amply illustrated. 5 figures (37 photos).
Hodson, MJ and Bell, A 1986 The mineral relations of the lemma of Phalaris canariensis L., with particular reference to its silicified macrohairs. Israel Journal of Botany 35: 241–253. Mineral concentrations and locations in the lemma were determined during plant life. Macrohairs received special attention; Si entered through cell walls early. 2 figures, 3 tables.
Hodson, MJ and Parry, DW 1982 The ultrastructure and analytical microscopy of silicon deposition in the aleurone layer of the caryopsis of Setaria italica (L.) Beauv. Annals of Botany 50: 221–228. Si content of the grain of foxtail millet occurs in the pericarp and aleurone layer. High esophageal cancer rates may be related to these deposits. 2 figures (5 photos).
Hodson, MJ and Sangster, AG 1988 Silica deposition in the inflorescence bracts of wheat (Triticum aestivum). I. Scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. Canadian Journal of Botany 66: 829–838. Si deposition in various cell types is reported for wheat glume, palea and lemma. Glumes and lemma are similar but the palea differs in Si distribution. 48 figures.
Hodson, MJ and Sangster, AG 1989a Silica deposition in the inflorescence bracts of wheat (Triticum aestivum). II. X-ray microanalysis and backscattered electron imaging. Canadian Journal of Botany 67: 281–287. Description of Si deposition (location and morphology) in wheat glume, palea and lemma includes prickles, papillae, macrohairs and short cells. 18 photos.
Hodson, MJ and Sangster, AG 1989b Subcellular localization of mineral deposits in the roots of wheat (Triticum aestivum L). Protoplasma 151:19–32. X-ray microanalysis indicated four minerals formed biomineralized structures. Si occurred in walls and lumina of endodermal, metaxylem and contiguous cells. Opaque intracellular deposits of phosphorus, calcium and manganese were also detected. 45 figures (15 photos), 3 tables.
Hodson, MJ, Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1982 Silicon deposition in the inflorescence bristles and macrohairs of Setaria italica (L.) Beauv. Annals of Botany 50: 843–850. Inflorescence bristles contain silicified prickle hairs. The structures may be connected to high rates of esophageal cancer in China. 2 figures (13 photos), 1 table.
Hodson, MJ, Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1984 An ultrastructural study on the development of silicified tissues in the lemma of Phalaris canariensis L. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 222: 413–425. Si deposition occurs after panicle emergence in trichomes and epidermal long cells. An active mechanism seems to be present. 6 plates (20 photos), 2 tables.
Hodson, MJ, Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1985 An ultrastructural study on the developmental phases and silicification of the glumes of Phalaris canariensis L. Annals of Botany 55: 649–665. Samples were harvested at 7 ages, studied with TEM and EDX, and dry-ashed for light microscopy. Si deposition was mainly in abaxial epidermis, proceeding from cell walls inward, and beginning in papillae and prickle hairs before panicle emergence, followed by silica cells and long cells. 7 figures (29 photos).
Hoffman, FM and Hillson, CJ 1979 Effects of silicon on the life cycle of Equisetum hyemale L. Botanical Gazette 140: 127–132. Si is demonstrated to be an essential element for growth of the sporophyte, although the gametophyte doesn’t seem to be as sensitive. Larger silicified papillae correlate to higher Si concentrations. 8 figures.
Holm, T 1899 On the anatomy of some North American species ofScleria. American Journal of Science 7: 5–12. Describes anatomy of root, rhizome, stem and leaf for 11 spp. Siliceous incrustations on bulliform cell walls are discussed. 6 figures, 1 table.
Hryniewiecki, B and Kurtz, W 1936 La répartition des cônes siliceux dans les cellules des Cypéracées et leur corrélation. (The distribution of silica cones in the cells of Cyperaceae and their correlation.) Bulletin International de l’Academie Polonaise des Sciences et des Lettres Series B: 33–54. (French). Location of silicified cones in leaf and stem is presented for 79 sedge spp. 2 plates (20 figures), 1 table.
Hurghisiu, I 1974 Continutul în silice din Phragmites australis (Cav) Trin et Stend, Typha angustifolia L şi Scirpus lacustris L, crescute în condijii ecologice variate. (Silica content of Phragmites australis, Typha angustifolia, Scirpus lacustris, grown in various ecological conditions.) Celuloza Si Hirtie 23: 10–11. (Romanian). Discusses silica content of several plant parts in June and September. 1 figure, 1 table.
Jefferies, TA 1916 The vegetative anatomy of Molinia caerulea, the purple heath grass. The New Phytologist 15: 49–71. Describes anatomy of root, rhizome, stem and leaf. Brief mention and illustration of silica bodies in leaf. 9 figures.
Johnston, A, Bezeau, LM and Smoliak, S 1967 Variation in silica content of range grasses. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 47: 65–71. Transplanted grasses, grass mixtures and a transect across southern Alberta, Canada, were sampled. Si content varied between years, but not consistently related to annual or seasonal rainfall. Urolithiasis implications are discussed, but not phytolith shapes. 3 figures, 4 tables.
Jones, LHP and Handreck, KA 1967 Silica in soils, plants, and animals. Advances in Agronomy 19: 107–149. Review of Si occurrence from soils through plants to animals includes discussion of uptake, transport, deposition and function. Mostly background on Si cycle but includes some photos of silicified cells. 1 figure (4 photos), 7 tables.
Jones, LHP, Milne, AA and Sanders, JV 1966 Tabashir: An opal of plant origin. Science 151: 464–466. Description of tabashir, a relatively large deposit of Si deposited in interior of bamboo stems. Specific gravity, index of refraction, x-ray diffraction, chemical composition, optical examination and electron diffraction indicate tabashir differs from other silica phytoliths. 1 figure (6 photos).
Jones, LHP, Milne, AA and Wadham, SM 1963 Studies of silica in the oat plant, II. Distribution of the silica in the plant. Plant and Soil 18: 358–371. Amount and type of phytoliths in oat tissues was studied. Wet ashing preserves details better than dry ashing. 6 plates (24 photos), 3 figures.
Kam, YK and Stone, BC 1970 Morphological studies in Pandanaceae. IV. Stomate structure in some Mascarene and Madagascar Pandanus and its meaning for infrageneric taxonomy. Adansonia 10: 219–246. Stomatal type is examined for 20 spp of Pandanus. Anatomical data is evaluated in terms of the 10 taxonomic sections. Note: Silica is only in table 2. Not descriptive. 8 plates (21 photos), 3 tables, 50 figures.
Kanno, I and Arimura, S 1958 Plant opal in Japanese soils. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition (Soil and Plant Food) 4: 62–67. Phytoliths recovered from soils were compared to those from 3 grasses: Sasa sp, Imperata sp, and Miscanthus sinensis. Distribution and characteristics of phytoliths are briefly discussed. 7 figures, 5 tables.
Kaufman, PB, Bigelow, WC, Petering, LB and Drogosz, FB 1969 Silica in developing epidermis cells of Avena internodes: Electron microprobe analysis. Science 166: 1015–1017. Concentrations of chemical compounds affect growth and cell development, including silicacork pairs. 35 figures, 1 table.
Kaufman, PB, Bigelow, WC, Schmid, R and Ghosheh, NS 1971 Electron microprobe analysis of silica in epidermal cells of Equisetum. American Journal of Botany 58: 309–316. 2 spp had different phytolith patterns from each other and from grasses, but they may not be taxonomically significant within Equisetum. 20 figures (19 photos), 1 table.
Kaufman, PB and Cassell, SJ 1963 Striking features in the development of internodal epidermis in the oat plant (Avena sativa). The Michigan Botanist 2: 115–121. Description of epidermal cell types in oat internodes, including brief treatment of developmental sequences. 8 figures (6 photos).
Kaufman, PB, Dayanandan, P, Franklin, CI and Takeoka, Y 1985 Structure and function of silica bodies in the epidermal system of grass shoots. Annals of Botany 55: 487–507. More than 37 spp studied with TEM, SEM, x-ray and light microscopy. C3/C4 differences in Si are discussed. Si did not facilitate light transmission in experiment. 7 figures (33 photos), 3 tables.
Kaufman, PB, Dayanandan, P, Goldoftas, M, Lau, E, Srinivasan, J, Clark, JM, Hollingsworth, P, Mardinly, J and Bigelow, WC 1978 Analysis of primary deposition sites for silica (SiO2*nH2O) in panicoid and festucoid grasses and in scouring rushes (Equisetum) by scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive microanalysis. Microbeam Analysis Society Proceedings 13th Conference. Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp 82A-82C. Deposition sites in 5 grasses and a horsetail are specific to tissue and cell types. Patterns of silicification are related to function of Si.
Kaufman, PB, LaCroix, JD, Dayanandan, P, Allard, LF, Rosen, JJ and Bigelow, WC 1973 Silicification of developing internodes in the perennial scouring rush (Equisetum hyemale var. affine). Developmental Biology 31: 124–135. Peels were studied with SEM and EPM. Si in internodes occurred first in stomata, then papillae, then long cells. Shapes are not compared to other plants. 25 figures (25 photos), 1 table.
Kaufman, PB, LaCroix, JD, Rosen, JJ, Allard, LF and Bigelow, WC 1972 Scanning electron microscopy and electron microprobe analysis of silicification patterns in inflorescence bracts of Avena sativa. American Journal of Botany 59: 1018–1025. Si deposition in cells of oats inflorescence mostly occurs in silica cells. Trichomes and long cells also contain some Si. 21 figures, 1 table.
Kaufman, PB, Petering, LB and Smith, JG 1970 Ultrastructural development of silica-cork cell pairs in Avena internodal epidermis. Botanical Gazette 131: 173–185. Development of silica-cork cell pairs is described for oats. 17 figures, 1 table.
Kaufman, PB, Petering, LB and Soni, SL 1970 Ultrastructural studies on cellular differentiation in internodal epidermis of Avena sativa. Phytomorphology 20: 281–309. Stomata, silica-cork pairs and trichomes differentiate by cell division and/or ceil expansion. All develop from short cells but by different paths. 24 figures (30 photos).
Kaufman, PB, Soni, SL, Bigelow, WC and Ghosheh, NS 1973 Scanning electron microscopic analysis of the leaf and internodal epidermis of the rice plant (Oryza sativa). Phytomorphology 23: 52–58. Description of the surface fine-structure includes information on silica cells as well as other cell types. 5 figures (14 photos).
Kaufman, PB, Soni, SL, LaCroix, JD, Rosen, JJ and Bigelow, WC 1972 Electron-probe microanalysis of silicon in the epidermis of rice (Oryza sativa L.) internodes. Planta 104: 10–17. Si accumulates in the entire epidermis (except stomata) throughout much of the internode; accumulation in the intercalary meristem favors silica cells over long cells. 8 photos, 1 table.
Kaufman, PB, Takeoka, Y, Carlson, TJ, Bigelow, WC, Jones, JD, Moore, PH and Ghosheh, NS 1979 Studies on silica deposition in sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) using scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive x-ray analysis, neutron activation analysis, and light microscopy. Phytomorphology 29: 185–193. Differences in Si content in internodes of sugarcane cultivars reflect number of epidermal silica cells. A possible function to increase transmittal of light to interior tissues is proposed. 21 photos, 1 table.
Kellogg, EA and Campbell, CS 1987 Phylogenetic analyses of the Gramineae. In Soderstrom, TR, Hilu, DW, Campbell, CS and Barkworth, ME, eds, Grass Systematics and Evolution. Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press: 310–322. Discussion of grass phylogeny is based on 33 characters. Si body direction (horizontal vs vertical) is included for 6 subfamilies and over 50 genera. 3 figures, 1 table.
Kido, M and Yanatori, S 1960 (Physiological and ecological studies of rice plant in well-drained and ill-drained fields. 6. Changes of some constituents in root of rice plant.) Nihon Sakumotsu Gakkai Kiji (Proceedings of the Crop Science Society of Japan) (Japanese Journal of Crop Science) 29: 40-42. (Japanese, English summary). Si deposition in root epidermis and central cylinder is correlated to concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen. 9 figures (8 photos).
Kido, M and Yanatori, S 1963 (Physiological and ecological studies of the rice plant in well-drained and ill-drained fields. 8. Distribution of silicified tissues of rice culm and silicate content in each internode as affected by different cultural conditions.) Nihon Sakumotsu Gakkai Kiji (Proceedings of the Crop Science Society of Japan) (Japanese Journal of Crop Science) 31: 237-240. (Japanese, English summary). Amount and distribution of Si in culm internodes varies with growth stage and field conditions (good drainage, chemical applications). 13 figures (8 photos), 1 table.
— 1964 (Studies on silicified tissues of leaf in rice plant by spodogram — hydrogen chloride treatment method.) Nihon Sakumotsu Gakkai Kiji. (Proceedings of the Crop Science Society of Japan) (Japanese Journal of Crop Science) 33: 115-118. (Japanese, English summary.)
Silicification sequence of cells in leaf blade is complete by emergence. Dumbbells and motor cells (bulliform) are shown. 18 photos.
Klein, RL and Geis, JW 1978 Biogenic silica in the Pinaceae. Soil Science 126(3): 145–156. 3 — 45 samples of 14 spp from the northeastern US were studied with SEM, EDX, WDX and light microscopy. The low Si content varied within genera and between locations but not between crown positions on a tree. Si shapes, perhaps diagnostic of family and genera, are described in detail and compared with angiosperm trees and grass. 5 plates (51 photos), 3 tables.
Kobayashi, M 1986 (Motor cell-silica bodies of Sasa and allied genera from Hachijojima, Izu Islands, Japan, with a special reference to the origin of Sasa kurilensis in the Izu Islands.) Journal of Phytogeography and Taxonomy 34: 31-35. (Japanese, English summary.) Phytoliths from 3 species are identifiable. Silicified bulliform (motor) cells are described. 2 figures (6 photos).
Koeppen, RC 1980 Silica bodies in wood of arborescent Leguminosae. International Association of Wood Anatomists Bulletin 1: 180–184. Survey of 382 genera of woody Leguminosae indicates irregular spherical silica bodies form in 8 genera of subfamily Caesalpinoideae. 4 photos, 1 table, 1 key.
Komarek, EV, Komarek, BB and Carlysle, TC 1973 The ecology of smoke particulates and charcoal residues from forest and grassland fires: A preliminary atlas. Tall Timbers Research Station, Miscellaneous Publication No 3. Particulates from fires are examined to determine their role in atmospheric cleansing. Plant residues from controlled burns are illustrated by SEM. Phytoliths (opaliths) are present in tissue fragments and isolated particles. 136 figures.
Kondo, R 1974 (Opal phytoliths — the relationship between the morphological features of opal phytoliths and the taxonomic groups of gramineous plants.) Pedorojisuto (Pedologist) 18: 2-10. (Japanese). A general review of phytolith morphology based on previous literature. 3 figures, 1 table.
Kondo, R 1976 (On the opal phytoliths of tree origins.) Pedorojisuto (Pedologist) 20: 176–190. (Japanese, English summary). Si content and morphology varies in phytoliths from tree leaves. Phytoliths from sediments were identified as tree in origin. 4 plates (22 photos), 1 table.
Kondo, R 1977 Opal phytoliths, inorganic, biogenic particles in plants and soils. Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly 11: 198–203. Briefly compares phytoliths from grasses and trees. Short survey of application to sediments. 3 plates (18 photos), 1 table.
Kondo, R and Iwasa, Y 1981 Biogenic opals of humic yellow latosol and yellow latosol in the Amazon region. Research Bulletin of Obihiro University 12: 231–239. Phytoliths from 2 soil types were classified by shape to plant type (palm, conifer or deciduous trees, gramineous). Differences between the soil phytolith assemblages are correlated to original vegetation. 4 figures (43 photos), 1 table.
Kondo, R and Kasahara, Y 1935 Vergleichende Untersuchungen über Aschenbilder der Spelzen von Chaetochloa, Panicum, Echinochloa, Sacciopsis und Syntherisma. (Comparative investigation on ash-pictures of glumes ofChaetochloa, Panicum, Echinochloa, Sacciopsis and Syntherisma.) Berichte des Ohara Instituts fir Landwirtschaftliche Forschungen 4: 491-513. (German). Ashed spodograms of hullspelze (inflorescence material) is compared for 5 genera. Cell shape and distribution (including phytoliths) are described. 3 plates (10 photos), 34 figures, 5 tables.
Kondo, R and Peason, T 1981 (Opal phytoliths in tree leaves. 2. Opal phytoliths in dicotyledonous angiosperm tree leaves.) Research Bulletin of Obihiro University, series 1, 12: 217-230. (Japanese, English summary). Morphology and deposition sites for 160 spp (46 families) of dicot angiosperms show patterns. Broad-leaf trees are distinguished from grasses, palms and conifers. 1 plate, 4 figures (68 types), 1 table.
Kondo, R and Sase, T 1986 (Opal phytoliths, their nature and application.) Daiyonki Kenkyu (Quaternary Research) 25: 31-63. (Japanese). Note the 5 plates (99 photos) of phytolith forms from plants.
Kondo, R and Sumida, T 1978 (The study of opal phytoliths of tree leaves. I. Opal phytoliths in gymnosperm and monocotyledonous angiosperm tree leaves.) Nihon Deojeo Hiryeogaku Zasshi (Journal of the Science of Soil and Manure) 49: 138-144. (Japanese). Lists phytolith types in 37 spp. Shape types are illustrated. 92 photos.
Kunoh, H and Akai, S 1977 Scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis of dumbbell-shaped bodies in rice lamina epidermis (Oryza sativa). Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin 104: 309–313. Presents the three-dimensional description of dumbbells. The major constituent is Si. 10 figures.
Kurmann, MH (ms) 1981 An opal phytolith and palynomorph study of extant and fossil soils in Kansas. MS thesis, Kansas State University: 79 p. The study is presented in two parts: phytoliths and palynomorphs. Microfossils were extracted from soils located under tall grass, shortgrass and woodland vegetation, as well as a paleosol. Differences in the phytolith assemblages are correlated to the vegetation. 49 figures (48 photos), 2 tables.
Kurmann, MH 1985 An opal phytolith and palynomorph study of extant and fossil soils in Kansas (USA). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 49: 217–235. Phytoliths and palynomorphs in sediments from shortgrass prairie, tall grass prairie and a woodland were analyzed and compared to a paleosol. Phytolith assemblages differed between the three modern plant communities. 5 plates (53 photos), 2 tables.
Kutuzova, RS 1968 Silica transformation during the mineralization of plant residues. Soviet Soil Science 7: 970–978. Decomposition of plant tissues was studied to document the release of phytoliths. Spruce, birch, aspen and fern leaves treated to simulate decomposition released both solid phytoliths and amorphous Si. 3 figures (32 photos), 2 tables.
Labouriau, LG 1983 Phytolith work in Brazil, a minireview. Phytolitharien Newsletter 2(2): 6–11. Reviews 8 articles on phytolith systematics and others on taphonomy. 7 have camera lucida drawings of silica bodies from 133 grass spp and report massive silicification of large continuous portions of leaf epidermis, especially in cerrado grasses.
Labouriau, LG, Mosquim, PR and Morhy, L 1973 Desposição de silica nas folhas de Casearia grandiflora St. Hil. (Deposits of silica in leaves of Casearia grandiflora St. Hil.). Anais Academia Brasileira de Ciencias 45: 545–563. (Portuguese, English summary). From Labouriau 1983: Combination wet-and dry-ashed material (leaf, stem inflorescence) from herbarium specimens was compared to dry-ashed samples; no differences were seen. This cerrado tree (Flacourtiaceae) had very localized Si deposits in leaf epidermis, often shaped as half domes, that increased in number with leaf age. Other non-grasses with potentially distinctive phytoliths were in Palmae, Myrtaceae, Cyperaceae, Bromeliaceae and Dilleniaceae. Camera lucida drawings of silica bodies.
Lanning, FC 1960 Nature and distribution of silica in strawberry plants. American Society for Horticultural Science, Proceedings 76: 349–358. Separate parts (including achenes) of 8 cultivars and 3 wild spp were dry-ashed and studied with x-rays and light microscopy of spodograms. All parts had Si, with more in older plants. Si varied among varieties and soil types. Shapes are not discussed. 2 figures (5 photos), 7 tables.
Lanning, FC 1961a Silica and calcium in black raspberries. American Society for Horticultural Science, Proceedings 77: 367–371. Separate aerial parts of new and fruiting canes all had Si, with more in leaves, bark and in older plants. Shapes are not discussed. 3 figures (3 photos), 1 table.
Lanning, FC 1961b Calcite in Lesquerella ovalifolia trichomes. Science 133: 380. Trichomes are shown by XRD to contain calcite and a small amount of Si. Ash and calcium content of leaves and trichomes are determined. 1 photo.
Lanning, FC 1963 Silicon in rice. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 11: 435–437. Si content of plant parts and a spodogram of the leaf sheath are determined. Mineralogical analysis indicates all Si is opal. 5 figures (1 photo).
Lanning, FC 1964 Ash, silica, and calcium in Lesquerella ovalifolia. Kansas Academy of Science, Transactions 67: 481–485. Dry-ashed samples, like other Cruciferae, had high concentrations of calcite in trichomes on the leaves and stems, but not in seed pods. Si was less variable, occurring mostly in leaves, then roots, then stems. 4 collection locations did not vary in Si. 2 figures (2 photos), 3 tables.
Lanning, FC 1966a Silica and calcium deposition in the tissues of certain plants. Advancing Frontiers of Plant Science 13: 55–66. Si and calcium content of parts from 11 spp (grasses, sedges, other monocots and dicots) differed between samples. Distribution of particles is shown in spodograms. 6 figures (7 photos), 3 tables.
Lanning, FC 1966b Relation of silicon in barley to disease, cold, and pest resistance. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 14: 636–638. Different parts of 5 var were analyzed in the fall and spring. Si content and depositional patterns were determined. No direct relation between total Si content and various detrimental factors was detected. 1 figure (5 photos), 1 table.
Lanning, FC 1966c Relation of silicon in wheat to disease and pest resistance. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 14: 350–352. Si content and distribution in parts of 11 var were determined in fall and spring. No direct relation between total Si content and disease or pest resistance was found. 1 figure (6 photos), 1 table.
Lanning, FC 1972a Ash and silica in Juncus. Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin 99: 196–198. 2 spp were studied as spodograms and dry-ashed for x-ray diffraction. Rows of Si spheres and fibers were noted. 1 figure (2 photos).
Lanning, FC 1972b Ash, SiO2, CaO, Fe2O3 and Al2O3 in Helianthus. HortScience 7: 184–186. Various parts of 2 dry-ashed spp were studied with XRD and light microscopy of spodograms. Ca and Si were highest in hispid hairs, then leaves, then achenes. Hair Si is depicted in blurred photos but not described or measured. 3 figures (7 photos), 1 table.
Lanning, FC 1977 Ash, silicon, calcium, and copper in “Concord” grape leaves. HortScience 12: 121–122. Dry-ashed samples and spodograms were studied with SEM and light microscopy. Ca occurred in veins and small oval particles in leaves. Si occurred in leaf tips, but shapes are not described. Si and Ca content increased with age. 2 figures (2 photos), 1 table.
Lanning, FC and Eleuterius, LN 1978 Silica and ash in the salt marsh rush, Juncus roemerianus. Gulf Research Reports 6: 169–172. Leaf Si content of 3 populations averages the same but rhizomes differ (related to soil Si content). Si content increases with age; maximum content is less than in Juncus interior. 2 figures (1 photo), 2 tables.
Lanning, FC and Eleuterius, LN 1981 Silica and ash in several marsh plants. Gulf Research Reports 7: 47–52. Ash and silica content of 3 grasses, a sedge and a dicot varied in amount and mineral composition. Silica cell distribution patterns are given. 2 figures (8 photos), 2 tables.
Lanning, FC and Eleuterius, LN 1983 Silica and ash in tissues of some coastal plants. Annals of Botany 51: 835–850. 44 southeastern US plants were studied with SEM, EDX and light microscopy. Si content varied with species, not with habitat. Euchlaena, Tripsacum and Manisuris had possible maize confusers. Descriptions are not detailed. 6 figures (36 photos), 5 tables.
Lanning, FC and Eleuterius, LN 1985 Silica and ash in tissues of some plants growing in the coastal area of Mississippi, USA. Annals of Botany 56: 157–172. Ash and silica content of 27 spp (grasses, sedges, other monocots and dicots) varied in amount and mineralogy. Deposition patterns indicate preference for certain epidermal areas-hairs, ridges, silica bodies. Inflorescences are especially heavily silicified and may be related to cancer. 7 figures (33 photos), 3 tables.
Lanning, FC and Eleuterius, LN 1987 Silica and ash in native plants of the central and southeastern regions of the United States. Annals of Botany 60: 361–375. 11 grasses and 1 composite were separated into different parts studied by SEM, EDX and light microscopy. Valuable discussion includes Si contents, depositional patterns and implications for health and archaeology. Among other conclusions, C3 grasses produced more oval phytoliths than C4. Text and caption give different identifications for Figure 1B. 5 figures (42 photos), 3 tables.
Lanning, FC and Garabedian, T 1963 Distribution of ash, calcium, iron, and silica in the tissues of young Sorghum plants. Kansas Academy of Science, Transactions 66: 443–448. Ash and silica content of sorghum plant parts was determined in 8 hybrids. Si deposition is shown in spodograms. 1 figure (3 photos), 2 tables.
Lanning, FC, Hopkins, TL and Loera, JC 1980 Silica and ash content and depositional patterns in tissues of mature Zea mays L. plants. Annals of Botany 45: 549–554. Separate parts from 18 var were dry-ashed, then wet-ashed and studied with SEM; spodograms were studied with light microscopy. Si content was highest in leaf blades and sheaths and lowest in kernels, pith and ear husk. Content but not pattern varied with geographic location. Morphology is not discussed in detail. 3 plates (10 photos), 2 tables.
Lanning, FC and Linko, YY 1961 Absorption and deposition of silica by four varieties of sorghum. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 9: 463–465. Si content of 4 var was analyzed at 3-week intervals during growth. Differences in rate and amount correspond to insect and disease resistance. 3 figures (4 photos), 2 tables.
Lanning, FC, Ponnaiya, BWX and Crumpton, CF 1958 The chemical nature of silica in plants. Plant Physiology 33: 339–343. Examination of Si from 4 grasses and 2 dicots by XRD and petrographic microscopy indicates the mineral opal. Deposition patterns (location, cell types) are also reported. 12 figures (9 photos), 2 tables.
Laroche, J 1968 Contribution a l’étude de l’Equisetum arvense L. III. Recherches sur la nature et la localisation de la silice chez le sporophyte. (Contribution to the study of Equisetum arvense L. III. Research on the nature and localization of silica in the sporophyte.) Revue Generale de Botanique 75: 65–116. (French, English summary). Si content, composition and distribution in tissues for a horsetail. Si is continuous on the outer surface and decreases to the interior. 8 plates (29 photos), 16 figures, 1 table.
— 1969a Etude des concrétions siliceuses de l’épidémie de l’Equisetum arvense L. au microscope à balayage. (Study of silica bodies on the epidermis of Equisetum arvense L. by scanning electron microscope.) Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 268: 2417-2418. (French). Si deposits on horsetail are formed first as vermiculaites concretions. Siliceous cement then forms a homogenous mass. 1 plate (4 figures).
— 1969b État de la silice sur et dans la membrane épidermique des organes aériens stériles d’Equisetum arvense L. (State of silica on and in the epidermal membrane of sterile aerial organs of Equisetum arvense L.) Revue Generale de Botanique 76: 483-489. (French, English summary). Si is deposited as microfibrils in epidermal spicules. 5 figures.
Laroche, J 1977 La silice et les plantes supérieures. (Silica and higher plants.) Revue de Cytologie et de Biologie Vegetales 40: 15–45. (French, English summary). Review of Si formation in plants covers both extracellular and intracellular deposits. 14 photos.
Laroche, J, Guervin, C and Le Coq, C 1975 La silice chez une Equisétacée: Equisetum maximum Lamk. I. Distribution dans les organes aériens stériles. (Silica in one Equisetaceae: Equisetum maximum Lamk. I. Distribution in sterile aerial organs.) Le Botaniste 57: 61–74. (French, English summary). Silicification of the sterile aerial shoot of a horsetail proceeds from the epidermis to the interior. 3 plates (8 photos), 1 figure.
Laroche, J, Guervin, C, Le Coq, C and Dao, VT 1970 Intérêt taxinomique de l’excrétion siliceuse chez les Equisétacées. (Taxonomic interest in silica excretion in the Equisetaceae.) Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 270: 2958-2960. (French). Epidermal Si concretions in Equisetum are constant, characteristic in arrangement and may be of taxonomic significance. 5 photos.
Laroche, J and Robert, D 1976 Mise en évidence, en microscopie électronique, du transit de silice a la faveur des parois dans les feuilles d’Equisetum arvense L. (Evidence in electronic microscopy of silica transmitted by means of the wall in the leaves of Equisetum arvense.) Comptes-Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 282: 1721-1723. (French). Si is transported to the epidermis through the cell wall. 3 photos.
— 1979 Séquence des événements conduisant à la silicification de certaines ornementations chez la feuille de Selaginella kraussiana. (Steps leading to silicification of certain ornamentations in Selaginella kraussiana leaf.) Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 288: 951-953. (French, English abstract). Silicified ornamentations are first callosic in nature. Callose fills empty spaces and then converts to mineral stage. 3 figures.
Laroche, J, Robert, D, Le Coq, C and Guervin, C 1972 Apports de la cytochimie, de la cytophysique, des microscopies électroniques par transmission et à balayage, à l’étude des phénomènes de silicification chez la feuille de Selaginella kraussiana. (Reports of the cytochemistry and cytophysiology, by transmission and scanning electron microscope, on the study of the phenomenon of silicification in the leaf of Selaginella kraussiana.) Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 275: 2671-2674. (French). Silicification follows two steps. First, Si substitutes for callose in structures; then the external epidermis becomes silicified. 2 plates (11 photos).
Lau, E, Goldoftas, M, Baldwin, VD, Dayanandan, P, Srinivasan, J and Kaufman, PB 1978 Structure and localization of silica in the leaf and internodal epidermal system of the marsh grass Phragmites australis. Canadian Journal of Botany 56: 1696–1701. Samples were studied with SEM and x-ray, and wet-ashed for light microscopy. Si was concentrated in guard cells, Si cells and OTW of long cells but not in trichomes. Si body shapes and dimensions are not described. 11 figures (11 photos).
Lawton, JR 1980 Observations on the structure of epidermal cells, particularly the cork and silica cells, from the flowering stem internode of Lolium temulentum L. (Gramineae). Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal 80: 161–178. Development of hairs, stomata, cork cells and silica cells is described in Lolium temulentum. Transportation and function of Si is not well known. 21 figures (19 photos).
Le Cohu, MC 1973 Examen au microscope électronique à balayage, des cônes de silice chez les Cypéracées. (Scanning electron microscope examination of silica cones in the Cyperaceae.) Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 277: 1301–1303. (French). Silica cones in sedges develop from a basal socket. The variety correlates somewhat to different growth stages. 1 plate (6 photos), 10 figures.
Lewis, RO 1981 Use of opal phytoliths in paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Journal of Ethnobiology 1:175–181. Phytolith analysis provides paleoenvironmental information in areas lacking pollen preservation. Some examples from the US High Plains are based on the Twiss, Suess and Smith (1969) classification. 4 figures.
Lloyd, FE 1921 The structure of cereal straws. Pulp and Paper Magazine 19: 973–976. Description includes limited mention of silicified cells. Epidermal patterns for stem and leaf sheath of barley, oat, rye and wheat are shown. 14 figures (12 photos), 1 table.
Luhan, M 1963 Die epidermis von Agropyron repens. (The epidermis of Agropyron repens.) Protoplasma 56: 645-660. (German). Description of epidermal morphology includes phytoliths. 8 figures.
MacDonald, LL (ms) 1974 Opal phytoliths as indicators of plant succession in northcentral Wyoming. MS thesis, University of Wyoming: 71 p. 11 grasses were dry-ashed and compared to soil samples from 2 sites. The comparative collection generally fit the patterns in Twiss, Suess and Smith (1969). The sites showed domination by grasses with possible changes in composition. 42 figures (36 photos), 5 tables, 6 appendices.
Marumo, Y and Yanai, H 1986 Morphological analysis of opal phytoliths for soil discrimination in forensic science investigation. Journal of Forensic Sciences 31: 1039–1049. Soil from different land uses is differentiated by phytolith content even when mineralogical characteristics were similar. Grass and tree morphological types are illustrated. 7 figures, 2 tables.
Matsutani, A 1972 Spodographic analysis of ash from the Kotosh site: A preliminary report. In Izum, S and Terada, K, eds, Andes 4: Excavations at Kotosh, Peru, 1963 and 1966. Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press: 319-326. Ash from the Kotosh site contained numerous spodograms (silica skeletons) identified to the Gramineae and Equisetum sp. The comparative collection included 4 horsetails, 19 grasses and 2 sedges. 12 photos.
Mehra, PN and Sharma, OP 1965 Epidermal silica cells in the Cyperaceae. Botanical Gazette 126: 53–58. The cyperaceous phytolith is defined as conical bodies from sedges (60 spp, 13 genera); it is distinct from grass shapes. 18 figures (3 photos), 2 tables.
Metcalfe, CR 1960 Anatomy of the Monocotyledons. I. Gramineae. Oxford, Clarendon Press: 731 p. Definitive research on grass anatomy includes phytolith distribution and morphology for numerous genera. Lists of genera containing certain characters are presented. 24 figures.
— 1961 The anatomical approach to systematics: General introduction with special reference to recent work on monocotyledons. In Recent Advances in Botany, Ninth International Botanical Congress: 146-150. Toronto, University of Toronto Press. Anatomical data are useful in determining taxonomic relationships. Crystals and Si are present in the monocots; presence and morphology is noted for some families.
— 1971 Anatomy of the Monocotyledons. V. Cyperaceae. Oxford, Clarendon Press: 597 p. Definitive description of sedge anatomy includes phytolith distribution and morphology information. Anatomical descriptions of 108 genera are presented. 69 figures.
— 1983 Secreted mineral substances. In Metcalfe, CR and Chalk, L, Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. II. Wood Structure and Conclusion of the General Introduction. Second edition, Oxford, Clarendon Press: 82–97. General review covers Si and Ca deposits and crystals in dicot families. 3 figures.
Metcalfe, CR and Chalk, L 1950 Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Oxford, Clarendon Press: 1500 p. Comprehensive description of 263 dicot families covers anatomy of leaf, stem, wood and root material. Silica bodies and crystal inclusions are noted; families with crystals are listed (pp 1343-1346). 3 plates (20 photos), 317 figures, 1 appendix.
— 1979 Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. I. Systematic Anatomy of Leaf and Stem, with a Brief History of the Subject. Second edition, Oxford, Clarendon Press: 276 p. Scattered references to crystals and cystoliths. 18 plates (119 photos).
— 1983 Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. II. Wood Structure and Conclusion of the General Introduction. Second edition, Oxford, Clarendon Press: 197 p. Treatment of Si and Ca bodies. Families listed by type of deposit on pp 215-221. 11 plates (69 photos).
Mika, V 1987 Koncentrace a formy kremíku u srhy říznaćky (Dactylis glomerata L. [Silicon concentrations and forms in cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.).] Rostlinna Vyroba (Plant Production) 33: 801-806. (Czechoslovakian, English abstract). Si concentration increased with age but soluble Si concentration decreased. 4 tables.
Milanez, FR and Filho, AM 1956 Nota söbre a ocorréncia de sílica no lenho de leguminosas. (Note on an occurrence of silica in legumes.) Rodrigusia 18(30): 7–26. (Spanish, English abstract). Si particles occur in secondary wood of some woody legumes. Location and co-occurrence with oxalate crystals are noted. 9 photos.
Milby, TH 1971 The leaf anatomy of buffalo grass, Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm. Botanical Gazette 132: 308–313. Thin sections and epidermal peels showed saddles and some hairs typical of chloridoid grasses; unicellular hairs and crescentic silica cells on the sheath were unlike chloridoids. 10 figures (10 photos).
Miles, SR (ms) 1973 Vegetative history and boundary stability of park areas in the Medicine Bow National Forest. MS thesis, University of Wyoming: 69 p. Boundaries of two open grass parks were investigated by analysis of soil phytolith content, among other measurements. Analysis of 8 spp for phytolith shapes is reported. 22 figures, 1 table.
Miles, SR and Singleton, PC 1975 Vegetative history of Cinnabar Park in Medicine Bow National Forest, Wyoming. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 39: 1204–1208. Boundaries of an open grass park within a forested area were examined by various methods, including phytolith content. The park is shifting slowly eastward, as indicated by amounts of opal in the park and surrounding forest. 6 figures ( 7 photos).
Montgomery, DJ and Parry, DW 1979 The ultrastructure and analytical microscopy of silicon deposition in the intercellular spaces of roots of Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench. Annals of Botany 44: 79–84. One grass was studied by TEM and Cora analytical microscopy. Si deposits began as spheres and eventually filled the intercellular spaces just external to the endodermis. Taxonomic significance not discussed. 3 plates (12 photos), 1 figure.
Moody, UL (ms) 1972 Phytoliths as an interpretive device of paleoenvironments in archaeological sites. MA thesis, University of Montana: 67 p. Investigation of phytoliths from a bog and an archaeological site for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Seven plants (grasses, herbs, a pine) analyzed; sketches of plant and sediment phytoliths. 17 figures, 5 tables.
Mulholland, SC 1986a Phytolith studies at Big Hidatsa, North Dakota: Preliminary results. In Clambey, GK and Pemble, RH, eds, The Prairie: Past, Present and Future. Proceedings of the Ninth North American Prairie Conference, July 29 to August 1, 1984, Moorhead, Minnesota. Tri-College University Center for Environmental Studies, Fargo, North Dakota: 21-24. Examination of Big Hidatsa sediments indicates that cross-shaped phytoliths (a type common in maize) are rare. Types found in cob chaff, as well as many wild grasses, are more abundant. Sediment provenience is a key factor for interpretation of sediment phytolith assemblages. 5 figures (5 photos).
— 1986b Classification of grass silica phytoliths. In Rovner, I, ed, Plant opal phytolith analysis in archaeology and paleoecology: Proceedings of the 1984 Phytolith Research Workshop, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Occasional Papers of The Phytolitharien 1: 41-52. Nine major shape categories, based on leaf samples studied with light microscopy and SEM, are defined and illustrated. Shape distributions in 41 spp show some differences from Twiss, Suess and Smith (1969). 8 figures (8 photos), 2 tables.
Mulholland, SC 1989 Phytolith shape frequencies in North Dakota grasses: A comparison to general patterns. Journal of Archaeological Science 16: 489–511. 19 wet-ashed spp reflected usual patterns, but shapes indicating Pooideae, Panicoideae and Chloridoideae also occurred in other subfamilies in significant amounts. Silica cell phytoliths are clearly described in detail. 1 figure (8 photos), 11 tables.
Mulholland, SC 1990 Arundo donax phytolith assemblages. Phytolitharian Newsletter 6(2): 3–9. Crosses were found that mimic maize in all three criteria reported as corn-specific. Other maize mimics include wild rice (Zizania aquatica) and cut-grass (Leersia oryzoides). Shape classification by length-width ratio is considered more reliable than by absolute measurements. 4 figures, 2 tables.
Mulholland, SC and Rapp, G, Jr 1985 Grass silica phytoliths. Society for Archaeological Sciences Newsletter 8(2): 5–6 (Research Report 5). Brief classification and distribution of silica bodies from grasses. Distribution in four subfamilies is compared to Twiss, Suess and Smith (1969). 1 table.
Mulholland, SC and Rapp, G, Jr 1989 Characterization of grass phytoliths for archaeological analysis. Materials Research Society Bulletin 14(3): 36–39. Errata, MRS Bulletin 14(5): 50. Introductory article summarizing distribution patterns. Provides useful definitions and diagrams of phytolith shapes. See errata notice. 2 figures (8 photos), 1 table.
Mulholland, SC, Rapp, G, Jr and Gifford, JA 1982 Phytoliths. In Rapp, G, Jr and Gifford, JA, eds, Troy: The Archaeological Geology. Princeton University Press: 117-137. Sediments from Troy indicate Arundo donax and other grasses may have been present. Although 35 plants were examined, the study focuses on grasses. The classification of grass silica bodies has since been revised extensively. 8 photos, 3 tables.
Mulholland, SC, Rapp, G, Jr and Ollendorf, AL 1988 Variation in phytoliths from corn leaves. Canadian Journal of Botany 66: 2001–2008. Sets of 100 phytoliths from 24 samples of wetashed Mandan maize leaves showed ratios of dumbbells to crosses vary consistently with leaf part (base, midsection and tip) and corn variety but not with leaf node, individual plant or geographical location. Three-dimensional morphology and cross size were not considered. 7 figures (3 photos), 6 tables.
Murphy, P 1986 Botanical evidence [Lawson, AJ, The excavation of a ring-ditch at Bowthorpe, Norwich, 1979]. In Lawson, AJ, ed, Barrow Excavations in Norfolk 1950–82, East Anglian Archaeology Report No 29: 43-45. Analysis of a stain beneath a skull indicates dumbbellproducing grasses contributed to the sediment. Comparison to modern sediments and a cereal ash were made. 1 figure.
Murthy, LSV 1965 Silica in Sarawak timbers. Malayan Forester 28: 27–45. Distribution of Si is indicated for 531 spp in 41 families. Occurrence in fibers, wood parenchyma or ray cells is listed for 98 spp. 3 figures, 2 tables.
Namba, T and Bae, KH 1981 Pharmacognostical studies on the crude drug “zhú-yè” and the bambusaceous plants V. The comparative anatomical studies on the leaves of the genera Semiarundinaria, Sinobambusa, Shibataea, Tetragonocalamus, and Chimonobambusa. Shoyakugaku Zasshi (Japanese Journal of Pharmacognosy) 35: 205-216. Anatomical characteristics differentiate leaves of several bamboo genera. Location and size of silica cells is included. 6 figures.
Nanko, H and Cote, WA 1980 Crystals and other inclusions in the phloem. In Nanko, H and Cote, WA Bark Structure of Hardwoods Grown on Southern Pine Sites. Syracuse, Syracuse University Press: 47–51. Crystals are described for 13 hardwood spp. Calcium oxalate is most common; other crystals and amorphous Si occur. 18 photos.
Netolitzky, F 1900 Mikroskopische Untersuchung gänzlich verkohlter vorge-schichtlicher Nahrungsmittel aus Tirol. (Microscopic investigation of fully carbonized prehistoric foods in the Tirol.) Zeitschrift für Untersuchungen Nahrungs-und Genussmittel 12: 401-407. (German). Discusses cell infillings but not Si specifically.
Netolitzky, F 1911 Verkieselungen bei den Rubiaceae-Galieae. (Silicification in the Rubiaceae-Galieae.) Osterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift 61: 409–412. (German). Discusses silicification in 5 genera—Rubia, Galium, Sherardia, Crucianella y Asperula. No illustrations.
Netolitzky, F 1912 Kieselmembranen der Dicotyledonenblätter Mitteleuropas. (Silica membrane of middle Europe Dicotyledon leaves.) Osterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift 62: 353–359. (German). Discussion of silicification in 29 dicotyledon families. No illustrations.
Netolitzky, F 1929 Die Kieselkörper. (Silica bodies.) Handbuch der Pflanzenanatomie 3(la): 1–19, 101-118. (German). Silica phytolith types, chemistry and nature are reviewed. Note that calcium crystals are reviewed in “Die kalksalze as zellinhaltskörper” in the same issue. 26 figures, 2 tables.
Newman, RH 1983 Asbestos-like fibres of biogenic silica in sugar cane. The Lancet 2: 857. Sharp fibers from sugarcane are similar to asbestos and may be implicated in carcinogenesis.
Diameters less than 1.5 urn and lengths greater than 8 um can penetrate the lungs. 2 figures (1 photo).
Newman, RH and Mackay, AL 1983 Silica spicules in canary grass. Annals of Botany 52: 927–929. Hairs on the fruits were studied with SEM and EDX and described in detail, with a discussion of health implications for humans. 1 figure (6 photos).
Norgren, JA (ms) 1973 Distribution, form and significance of plant opal in Oregon soils. PhD dissertation, Oregon State University: 165 p. 15 conifer spp, 5 grasses and 1 sedge were studied by light microscopy. Conifer Si content ranged from trace to 7.9%, varying between locations. Shapes were possibly distinctive in spruce and Douglas fir. The grasses had very high Si content (17–23%), but shapes were not addressed. Several soils had very high quantities of silt-and clay-sized phytoliths. 10 figures (20 photos), 10 tables, 2 appendices.
Norton, BE 1967 Occurrence of silica in Lepidosperma limicola. The Australian Journal of Science 29: 371–372. Stomatal guard cells and epidermal walls are reported to be silicified, as well as the “cyperaceous” type of hat. In addition, silicified hook-like projections on leaf margins provide a razor-sharp edge. 2 figures (4 photos).
Ohki, K 1932 On the systematic importance of spodograms in the leaves of Japanese Bambusaceae. Tokyo Daigaku. Rigakubu. Journal of the Faculty of Science, University of Tokyo, Section 3, Botany 4: 1–129. Spodogram characteristics, including silica cells, are described for 51 spp of 11 genera of bamboos. Shape, distribution and size information are provided for epidermal cells. 43 figures, 6 tables.
Ohki, K 1939 (Studies on the systematic importance of spodograms in the leaves of Gramineae I.) Botanical Magazine of Tokyo 53: 208–212. (Japanese). Illustrates epidermal anatomy (including phytoliths) for Zizania aquatica and Arundo donax. 10 figures.
Okamoto, Y 1963 (Effects of silicic acid absorbed from the surface of the leaves upon the paddy rice plant growth.) Nihon Sakumotsa Gakkai Kiji. (Proceedings of the Crop Science Society of Japan) 32: 61-65. (Japanese, English summary). Si absorbed through leaves (by means of spraying) gives larger and heavier plants (with more phytoliths) than plants lacking Si or with Si in the culture. 10 figures (8 photos), 2 tables.
Ollendorf, AL (ms) 1986 A study of phytoliths from Philistine levels at Tel Miqne (Ekron), Israel. MS thesis, University of Minnesota: 180 p. Separate parts of 9 sedges, 2 rushes and 57 grasses from Israel, and 7 related spp from elsewhere. Sedges had distinctive phytoliths; rushes had little Si. Grass subfamilies showed trends in shape distributions. Archaeological samples showed possible functional differences. Appendices form a manual for procedures. 24 figures (26 photos), 11 tables, 5 appendices.
Ollendorf, AL 1987 Archaeological implications of a phytolith study at Tel Miqne (Ekron), Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology 14: 453–463. Phytolith analysis at Tel Miqne (the Philistine Ekron) focused on identification of occupation surfaces and contributory plants. Analysis of the grass reference collection includes correspondence analysis of the assemblages within subfamilies. 4 figures (5 photos), 4 tables.
Ollendorf, AL, Mulholland, SC and Rapp, G, Jr 1987 Phytoliths from some Israeli sedges. Israel Journal of Botany 36: 125–132. 8 spp were wet-ashed and studied with light microscopy and SEM. Round and hexagonal cones were found singly and in groups. Other Si fragments seen were not typical of grasses. 4 figures (16 photos), 1 table.
Ollendorf, AL, Mulholland, SC and Rapp, G, Jr 1988 Phytolith analysis as a means of plant identification: Arundo donax and Phragmites communis. Annals of Botany 61: 209–214. 11 wet-ashed leaf samples showed 2 mutually exclusive patterns of Si body shape in these reedgrasses, which are otherwise indistinguishable without inflorescences. 2 figures (7 photos), 3 tables.
O’Neill, CH, Hodges, GM, Riddle, PN, Jordan, PW, Newman, RH, Flood, RJ and Toulson, EC 1980. A fine fibrous silica contaminant of flour in the high oesophageal cancer area of north-east Iran. International Journal of Cancer 26: 617–628. Silicified hairs from Phalaris inflorescence bracts are implicated in the etiology of esophageal cancer. Sharp, tapering fibers of a certain size range break off during milling, forming a contaminant in flour. 4 figures (13 photos), 4 tables.
O’Neill, C, Jordan, P, Bhatt, T and Newman, R 1986 Silica and oesophageal cancer. In Silicon Biochemistry. Ciba Foundation Symposium No 121, Chichester, UK, John Wiley and Sons: 214-243. Narrow fibers 250 urn in length stimulate growth of fibroblasts in culture: similar fibers released by Phalaris (Iran), millet (China), sugar cane (US, India) and plants in South Africa are correlated to high cancer rates. A preparation of such fibers has been observed to promote cancer in mice. 5 figures.
O’Neill, C, Pan, QQ, Clarke, G, Liu, F-S, Hodges, G, Ge, M, Jordan, P, Chang, Y-M, Newman, R and Toulson, E 1982. Silica fragments from millet bran in mucosa surrounding oesophageal tumors in patients in northern China. Lancet 1: 1202–1206. Fragments of millet silicified hairs occur in mucosal samples around tumors. The fibers may provide anchorage for proliferation of cancer cells. 5 figures (5 photos).
Palmer, PG 1976 Grass cuticles: A new paleoecological tool for East African lake sediments. Canadian Journal of Botany 54: 1725–1734. Grass epidermal leaf fragments from lake cores can provide paleoecological information. Preservation of many epidermal characters, including silica deposits, allows identification of grass taxa. 15 figures.
Palmer, PG and Gerbeth-Jones, S 1986 A scanning electron microscope survey of the epidermis of East African grasses: IV. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, No 62, Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press: 120 p. Fourth volume in SEM survey covers tribes Arundinelleae, Isachneae and Paniceae. Epidermal anatomy includes phytolith distribution and morphology. 86 plates (344 photos).
— 1988 A scanning electron microscope survey of the epidermis of East African grasses, V, and West African supplement. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, No 67, Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press: 157 p. Fifth volume in SEM survey covers tribes Andropogoneae and Maydeae; West African supplement covers tribes Bambuseae, Agrostideae, Aeluropodeae, Arundinelleae, Paniceae and Andropogoneae. 120 plates (720 photos).
Palmer, PG, Gerbeth-Jones, S and Hutchinson, S 1985 A scanning electron microscope survey of the epidermis of East African grasses: III. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, No 55, Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press: 136 p. Third volume in SEM survey covers tribes Aristideae to Zoysieae. 98 plates (588 photos).
Palmer, PG and Tucker, AE 1981 A scanning electron microscope survey of the epidermis of East African grasses: I. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, No 49, Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press: 84 p. Introductory volume for SEM survey covers tribes Bambuseae to Centosteceae. 48 plates (288 photos).
— 1983 A scanning electron microscope survey of the epidermis of East African grasses: II. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, No 53, Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press: 72 p. Second volume in SEM survey covers tribes Poeae through Stipeae. 52 plates (312 photos).
Parry, DW and Hodson, MJ 1982 Silica distribution in the caryopsis and inflorescence bracts of foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.) and its possible significance in carcinogenesis. Annals of Botany 49: 531–540. Si is concentrated in papillae and epidermal cells or the tissues. Sharp fragments can promote esophageal cancer. 3 figures (18 photos).
Parry, DW, Hodson, MJ and Newman, RH 1985 The distribution of silicon deposits in the fronds of Pteridium aquilinum L. Annals of Botany 55: 77–83. Si deposition in epidermal cell walls and mid-rib laminae was determined by SEM and XRD. Different deposition mechanisms and functions are proposed. 5 figures (13 photos).
Parry, DW, Hodson, MJ and Sangster, AG 1984 Some recent advances in studies of silicon in higher plants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 304: 537–549. Review covers Si deposition patterns and mechanisms but not taxonomic significance. Human health care is discussed. 4 figures (28 photos), 2 tables.
Parry, DW and Kelso, M 1975 The distribution of silicon deposits in the roots of Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench. and Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Annals of Botany 39: 995–1001. Si deposition in endodermal walls and other tissues differs between species. Wall deposits are similar to leaf epidermal deposits while lumina aggregates appear to be a different type. Development and function of Si is briefly discussed. 2 plates (24 photos), 1 figure.
Parry, DW and Kelso, M 1977 The ultrastructure and analytical microscopy of silicon deposits in the roots of Saccharum officinarum (L.). Annals of Botany 41: 855–862. Si deposition in root endodermis is analyzed by SEM and EPM. Location and development is compared to that of Sorghum bicolor. 3 plates (14 photos), 1 figure, 1 table.
Parry, DW, O’Neill, CH and Hodson, MJ 1986 Opaline silica deposits in the leaves of Bidens pilosa L. and their possible significance in cancer. Annals of Botany 58: 641–647. Si fibers in microhair walls are described from SEM and EPM. The sharply pointed structures have been implicated in esophageal cancer. 2 figures (15 photos), 1 table.
Parry, DW, and Smithson, F 1957 Detection of opaline silica in grass leaves. Nature 179: 975–976. Techniques for exposing phytoliths in plants affect the amount and detail of phytoliths observed. Acid baths, epidermal separation and staining are briefly discussed. 5 figures.
Parry, DW, and Smithson, F 1958a Silicification of branched cells in the leaves of Nardus stricta L. Nature 182: 1460–1461. Wet-ashed samples of this grass showed unique branched phytoliths with potential taxonomic significance. 5 figures (5 photos).
Parry, DW, and Smithson, F 1958b Silicification of bulliform cells in grasses. Nature 181: 1549–1550. Clear description and diagrams of bulliform phytoliths. 7 figures (6 photos).
Parry, DW, and Smithson, F 1958c Techniques for studying opaline silica in grass leaves. Annals of Botany 22: 543–549. Discussion of preparation techniques focuses on lab and microscopy methods of making phytoliths conspicuous. 2 plates (21 photos).
Parry, DW, and Smithson, F 1963 Influence of mechanical damage on opaline silica deposition in Molinia caerulea L. Nature 199: 925–926. Mechanical damage to apical portions of leaves caused abnormal silicification of bulliform cells in some replicates. Other damage treatments did not cause abnormalities; none of the treatments caused changes in deposition of dumbbell silica bodies. 1 figure (2 photos).
Parry, DW, and Smithson, F 1964 Types of opaline silica depositions in the leaves of British grasses. Annals of Botany 28: 169–185. Useful introduction to light microscopy of phytoliths with clear descriptions and diagrams of basic Si shapes (80 spp); reiterates the authors’ 1958a article. Their goal of providing a key was stymied by further research questions. 4 plates (91 photos), 4 figures, 2 tables.
Parry, DW, and Smithson, F 1966 Opaline silica in the inflorescences of some British grasses and cereals. Annals of Botany 30: 525–538. Phytoliths from 37 spp are described and classified by cell type. Some types common to leaves are rare in inflorescences. 3 plates (36 photos), 5 figures.
Parry, DW and Soni, SL 1972 Electron-probe microanalysis of silicon in the root of Oryza sativa L. Annals of Botany 36: 781–783. Si deposition in rice roots occurs in the endodermis. Heaviest deposits occur on the ITW, with some also on radial walls. 1 plate (4 photos).
Parry, DW and Winslow, A 1977 Electron-probe microanalysis of silicon accumulation in the leaves and tendrils ofPisum sativum (L.) following root severance. Annals of Botany 41: 275–278. Pea seedlings grown without roots in a Si-rich nutrient took up Si, unlike the control plants. Neither group made phytoliths. A mechanism inhibiting Si uptake is inferred at the external surface of the root. 1 plate (12 photos).
Pearsall, DM 1978 Phytolith analysis of archaeological soils: Evidence for maize cultivation in Formative Ecuador. Science 199:177–178. Leaves of 9 maize races and 10 wild grass genera were studied by light microscopy. All but one maize race, and none of the wild grasses, had large crosses. 10 archaeological samples had large crosses, indicating maize cultivation by 2450 BC. 1 table.
— (ms) 1979 The application of ethnobotanical techniques to the problem of subsistence in the Ecuadorian Formative. PhD dissertation, University of Illinois: 270 p. Separate parts of an unspecified number of species (mostly grasses) were studied with light microscopy. Results were combined with analyses of seeds, charcoal, site catchment and other bioarchaeological data. Conclusions include probable maize cultivation and cultural selection of leguminous wood. 17 figures (25 photos), 13 tables, 3 appendices.
— 1982 Maize phytoliths: A clarification. Phytolitharien Newsletter 1(2): 3. Shape and size criteria for maize identification are described in detail.
Pearsall, DM 1989 Phytolith analysis. In Pearsall, DM, Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures. New York, Academic Press: 311–438. Comprehensive presentation of phytolith analysis as applied to paleoethnobotany covers topics of phytolith occurrence in plants, archaeobotanical history, status of research, field and lab methods and interpretation. Review of classification is thorough and provides the most recent introduction to the subject. 39 figures (41 photos), 15 tables.
Pearsall, DM 1990 Maize imitators: How great a problem? A comment on “Arundo donax phytolith assemblages” by S.C. Mulholland. Phytolitharien Newsletter 6(2): 10–11. This maize mimic is a problem only in post-Columbian contexts in areas where the plant has naturalized, but is a reminder of the need for extensive local comparative research and detailed study of three-dimensional morphology.
Pearsall, DM and Piperno, DR 1990 Antiquity of maize cultivation in Ecuador: Summary and reevaluation of the evidence. American Antiquity 55: 324–337. Clear review of identification procedures for tropical maize. Re-examined samples show that maize was in coastal Ecuador by 5000 BC. 6 figures (1 photo), 2 tables.
Pease, DS (ms) 1967 Opal phytoliths as indicators of paleosols. MS thesis, New Mexico State University: 81 p. Separate parts of 5 grasses, 3 conifers, 2 cactus, yucca, creosote bush and Ephedra from the southwest US were studied with XRD and light microscopy. Black grama roots and conifers produced possibly distinctive phytoliths. Phytoliths ranged from trace to 0.001% in 4 paleosols. 45 figures (36 photos), 10 tables, 4 appendices.
Pease, DS and Anderson, JU 1969 Opal phytoliths in Bouteloua eriopoda Torr. roots and soils. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 33: 321–322. Dry-ashed samples were studied with x-ray and light microscopy. Rectangular phytoliths, considered unique among 12 other (unnamed) spp, were recovered from sediment. 2 figures (2 photos).
Perry, CC, Mann, S and Williams, RJP 1984 Structural and analytical studies of the silicified macrohairs from the lemma of the grass Phalaris canariensis L. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 222: 427–438. Silicification of macrohairs follows a sequence of silica particles and inorganic element distribution. Cellular processes are proposed to control the silicification. 10 figures (16 photos).
Perry, CC, Mann, S, Williams, RJP, Watt, F, Grime, GW and Takacs, J 1984 A scanning proton microprobe study of macrohairs from the lemma of the grass Phalaris canariensis L. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 222: 439–445. Distribution of inorganic elements in macrohairs indicates spatial organization varies with silicification stage and low quantities in mature hairs. Silicification may be associated with cellular activity. 3 figures (18 photos), 2 tables.
Perry, CC, Williams, RJP and Fry, SC 1987 Cell wall biosynthesis during silicification of grass hairs. Journal of Plant Physiology 126: 437–448. Analysis of hairs on Phalaris canariensis lemmas indicates both ultrastructure of silica and organic phase composition changes during development. Changes in polysaccharide synthesis may direct changes of Si ultrastructure during secondary wall formation. 4 figures, 2 tables.
Peters, I 1968 Opalphytolithe, ihre Brauchbarkeit und Verwendungsmoglichkeiten als Pflanzliche Mikrofossilien. (Opal phytoliths, their usefulness and potential as plant microfossils.) Palaeontographica, Abt. B. 123: 243–256. (German, English summary). Investigation of chernozem and podzolic soils in central Europe shows some differences in phytolith content. Si content of 15 grasses is described. 4 plates (23 photos).
Peterson, I 1983 Plant stones. Science News 124: 88-89, 94. Brief general review article presents an overview of phytolith research in early 1980s. Phytoliths from some grasses and sedges are illustrated. 4 photos.
Piperno, DR (ms) 1979 Phytolith analysis of archaeological soils from central Panama. MA thesis, Temple University: 99 p. Analysis of material from two sites indicates maize in the ceramic levels of one. Phytolith morphology of grasses, herbs, conifers and deciduous trees is discussed. 17 figures, 5 tables.
— (ms) 1983 The application of phytolith analysis to the reconstruction of plant subsistence and environments in prehistoric Panama. PhD dissertation, Temple University: 459 p. Leaves of 328 spp in 54 families were studied by light microscopy and SEM. Classifies Si by origin in plant and by shape. Much has been published in later articles, but the unpublished plant sampling chapter is helpful for those starting in regions without previous phytolith work. 51 plates (202 photos), 10 figures, 3 appendices.
Piperno, DR 1984 A comparison and differentiation of phytoliths from maize and wild grasses: Use of morphological criteria. American Antiquity 49: 361–383. Leaves of 20 maize races, 2 teosinte spp, and 40 wild Panicoid and Bambusoid grasses were studied by light microscopy and SEM. Consistent identification of maize depended on: 1) high percentages of large crosses; 2) three-dimensional morphology of crosses; and 3) low ratios of dumbbells to crosses. Other grasses with potentially distinctive phytoliths were found. Central Panamanian sites had maize phytoliths in levels dating to about 5000 BC. 3 figures (12 photos), 4 tables.
Piperno, DR 1985a Further comments on the maize-diagnostic phytolith. Phytolitharien Newsletter 3(2): 3. Work was in progress on research published in Pearsall and Piperno (1990).
Piperno, DR 1985b Phytolith analysis and tropical paleo-ecology: Production and taxonomic significance of siliceous forms in New World plant domesticates and wild species. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 45: 185–228. Essential reference. 17 crops and 365 wild plants (260 dicots) were studied by SEM and light microscopy. Few crops produced significant phytoliths. Wild monocots produced fewer phytoliths than previously thought, but production in some dicot families was abundant and morphologically diverse. Even phytoliths with little taxonomic value are illustrated and clearly described. 21 plates (84 photos), 3 tables.
Piperno, DR 1985c Phytolith taphonomy and distributions in archaeological sediments from Panama. Journal of Archaeological Science 12: 247–267. Phytolith analysis at four Panamanian sites reveals stable deposition and preservation of a wide variety of silicified plant structures. Evidence of maize and squash, as well as other monocots and dicots, illustrates the strengths and weaknesses of this method. 3 figures (14 photos), 5 tables.
Piperno, DR 1986 A survey of phytolith production and taxonomy in non-graminaceous plants: Implications for paleoecological reconstruction. In Rovner, I, ed, Plant opal phytolith analysis in archaeology and paleoecology: Proceedings of the 1984 Phytolith Research Workshop, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Occasional Papers of The Phytolitharien 1: 35–40. Expansion of information in Piperno (1985b), based on 500 spp; most published later in Piperno (1988). Errata noted in Phytolitharien Newsletter 5(1): 4.
Piperno, DR 1988 Phytolith Analysis: An Archaeological and Geological Perspective. New York, Academic Press: 280 p. Most recent and comprehensive review of all aspects of phytolith morphology and its applications for prehistory. Includes history of phytolith systematics and keys for New World tropical plants, for North American Central Plains grasses and for Lower Central American grasses. 96 photos, 27 figures, 16 tables.
Piperno, DR 1989 The occurrence of phytoliths in the reproductive structures of selected tropical angiosperms and their significance in tropical paleoecology, paleoethnobotany and systematics. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 61: 147–173. Phytoliths from 254 tropical angiosperms indicated patterns of Si deposition. Three families are discussed in detail and diagnostic forms described. 16 plates (56 photos).
Piperno, DR and Clary, KM 1984 Early plant use and cultivation in the Santa Maria Basin, Panama: Data from phytoliths and pollen. In Lange, FW, ed, Recent developments in Isthmian archaeology: Advances in the prehistory of Lower Central America, British Archaeological Reports, International Series 212: 85-121. Pollen and phytolith analysis of Panamanian plants and archaeological sediments was applied to prehistoric subsistence. Phytolith distribution in monocots and dicots is discussed, as is identification of maize (compared to 48 wild grasses). Data are similar to other papers by Piperno. 13 figures (12 photos), 4 tables.
Ponnaiya, BWX 1951 Studies in the genus Sorghum: II. The cause of resistance in Sorghum to the insect pest Atherigona indica M. Madras University Journal, Section B (Science) 21: 203–217. Epidermal silica bodies in Sorghum are correlated to resistance from insect pest. Distribution of dumbbell and irregularly shaped silica bodies is described from spodograms. 6 tables.
Ponnaiya, BWX 1960 Silica deposition in Sorghum roots and its possible roles. The Madras Agricultural Journal 47: 31–32. Spodograms of sorghum roots indicate Si deposition on ITW endodermis. These silica knobs may be restricted to Andropogoneae, particularly species resistant to drought.
Postek, MT 1981 The occurrence of silica in the leaves of Magnolia grandiflora L. Botanical Gazette 142: 124–134. Specimens were studied with SEM, TEM, EDX and light microscopy. Phytoliths were present exterior to epidermal cell walls, in the cuticle, and in tracheids, vein sheath cells, epidermal cells and guard cells. 28 figures (27 photos).
Powers, AH, Gilbertson, DD and Jones, G 1986 The Prospects for Environmental Discrimination in Coastal Sand Dunes on the Basis of Studies of Phytolith Type and Abundance, University of Sheffield, Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, Heritage Landscape Programme Contract Report No 1, 133 p, for Central Excavation Unit, Scottish Development Company. Absolute frequencies of phytoliths are established by use of an independent marker (Lycopodium spores). Phytolith extraction by ashing is described. 3 tables.
Prat, H 1932 L’épiderme des Graminées. (The epidermis of the Gramineae.) Annales des Sciences Naturelles: Botanique, Series 10, 14: 117–324. (French). Epidermal characteristics (including phytoliths) are described for the Gramineae. Agropyron and the Hordeae are described in detail. 20 plates, 106 figures.
Prat, H 1934 Contribution à l’étude systématique et histologique des Chloridées. (Contribution to the systematic and histologic study of the Chlorideae.) Societe Botanique de France, Bulletin 81: 475–491. (French). Placement of the Chloridoideae within the Gramineae, as well as subdivision of tribes, is based on epidermal and other characters. Phytoliths are one epidermal characteristic. 6 figures.
— 1935 Contribution à l’étude systématique et histologique des Festucées. (Contribution to the systematic and histologic study of the Festuceae.) Societe Botanique de France, Bulletin 82: 498-506. (French). Discussion on anatomy, morphology, cytology and histology of the Festuceae shows the heterogeneous nature of the tribe (as defined by Bentham and Hooker). Silica cell information is included. 31 figures.
Prat, H 1936 La systématique des Graminées. (Systematics of the Gramineae.) Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique, Series 10, 18: 165–258. (French). Grass systematics is reviewed and revised based on histology, anatomy (including phytoliths), cytology, morphology, chemistry, physiology and ecology. A distinction between Festucoid, Panicoid and Bambusoid subfamilies is made. 29 figures.
Prat, H 1948 General features of the epidermis in Zea mays. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 35:341–351. The background information describes various lab techniques, epidermal cell types (including silica cells) and subfamily distinctions. Distribution of epidermal characters in Zea mays is presented. 3 figures.
Prat, H 1960 Vers une classification naturelle des Graminées. (Toward a natural classification of the Gramineae.) Societie Botanique de France, Bulletin 107: 32–79. (French). Classification of the grasses is based on morphological and non-morphological characteristics. Epidermal description includes silica cell morphology. 6 figures, 5 tables.
Raeside, JD 1970 Some New Zealand plant opals. New Zealand Journal of Science 13: 122–132. Description of phytoliths from 3 tussock grasses and 3 sedges identified some types specific to the sedges, but none for the grasses. The families can be distinguished by phytoliths. 48 figures.
Rapp, GR, Jr 1986 Morphological classification of phytoliths. In Rovner, I, ed, Plant opal phytolith analysis in archaeology and paleoecology: Proceedings of the 1984 Phytolith Research Workshop, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Occasional Papers of The Phytolitharien 1: 33-34. Short description of data base generation in Minnesota.
Reid, JS 1947 Silica in beech timbers. The New Zealand Journal of Forestry 5: 330–331. Si content of 3 Nothofagus species compares to that of teak. Silica crystals concentrate in ray cells.
Richter, HG 1980 Occurrence, morphology, and taxonomic implications of crystalline and siliceous inclusions in the secondary xylem of the Lauraceae and related families. Wood Science and Technology 14: 35–44. Crystal (calcium oxalate) and silica bodies in Lauraceae wood are described based on about 750 spp in 40 genera. Occurrence in some genera is listed but not detailed distribution in species. 4 figures (12 photos).
Riquer, J 1960 Les phytolithes de certains sols Tropicaux et des podzols. (Phytoliths of certain tropical soils and podzols.) Seventh International Congress of Soil Science, Transactions 4: 425–431. (French, English summary). A horizon composed of phytoliths resembles a podzol A2 but has a different origin. Phytoliths from four plants are present. 2 figures (2 photos), 1 table.
Robert, D, Laroche, J, Guervin, C, Le Coq, C and Sauvanet, A 1973 Mise en place de la silice dans les cellules épidermiques de la feuille d’une Ptéridophyte: Selaginella kraussiana II. Étude ultrastructurale. (Study in place of the silica in epidermal cells of the leaf of a pteridophyte: Selaginella kraussiana. II. Ultrastructural study.) Bulletin du Museum National d’Historie Naturelle, Series 3, Botanique 14: 211-233. (French, English abstract). Initial Si deposition in epidermal ornamentation is related to evolution of the protoplasm and the cell wall. The second phase of silicification is similar to other species. 7 plates (20 photos).
Robinson, RL 1979a Biosilica analysis: Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of 41LL254. In Assad, C and Potter, DR, An Intensive Archaeological Survey of Enchanted Rock State Natural Area, Llano and Gillespie Counties, Texas, Center for Archaeological Research, San Antonio, University of Texas Archaeological Survey Report 84: 125–144. Paleoenvironment is reconstructed based on 5 samples covering 6000 to 2000 BP. A morphological classification of sediment phytoliths is presented; a comparative collection of 38 spp was used to identify phytolith origin. 3 figures, 3 tables.
Robinson, RL 1979b Biosilica and climatic change at 41GD21 and 41GD21A. In Fox, DE, Archaeological Investigations of Two Prehistoric Sites on the Coleto Creek Drainage, Goliad County, Texas, Center for Archaeological Research, San Antonio, University of Texas Archaeological Survey Report 69: 102-113. Climatic changes were reconstructed from 6 samples from 2 sites covering 6000 BC to AD 1000. A morphological classification is presented; identification of plant origin is based on 38 spp. 1 figure, 2 tables.
Rosen, AM 1987 Phytolith studies at Shiqmim. In Levy, TE, ed, Shiqmim I: Studies concerning Chalcolithic societies in the northern Negev Desert, Israel (1982–1984), British Archaeological Reports, International Series 356: 243–249. Phytolith analysis at Shiqmim identified tissue segments of wheat and barley. Irrigation farming is suggested by the multi-celled segments, while proportions of cereals indicate drier conditions than at other sites. 3 photos, 3 tables.
Rovner, I 1971 Potential of opal phytoliths for use in paleoecological reconstruction. Quaternary Research 1: 343–359. Modern synthesis and presentation of phytolith analysis as a major paleoecological and archaeological methodology. Phytoliths from 30 taxa are described and taxonomic significance of phytolith shapes is assessed. 2 figures.
Rovner, I 1975 Plant opal phytolith analysis in Midwestern archaeology. Michigan Academician 8: 129–137. Brief review of phytolith analysis describes phytoliths and applications in archaeology. 4 photos.
Rovner, I 1983 Plant opal phytolith analysis: Major advances in archaeobotanical research. In Schiffer, M, ed, Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6: 225–266. New York, Academic Press. Review of phytolith analysis covers issues of production, taxonomy, taphonomy and applications as well as extraction procedures. Discussion of taxonomy includes Twiss, Suess and Smith (1969), Blackman (1971), Mehra and Sharma (1965), Bertoldi de Pomar (1971), Rovner (1971) and other articles. 3 figures.
Rovner, I, ed 1986 Plant opal phytolith analysis in archaeology and paleoecology: Proceedings of the 1984 Phytolith Research Workshop, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Occasional Papers of The Phytolitharien No 1: 147 p. 17 papers with question/answer sessions and discussant comments. For abstracts, see Phytolitharien Newsletter 3(1) (1984). For comments on 7 systematics papers, see individual authors: Bozarth; Brown; Mulholland; Piperno; Rapp; Smith, Kaplan and Davies; Twiss.
Russ, JC and Rovner, I 1989 Stereological identification of opal phytolith populations from wild and cultivated Zea. American Antiquity 54: 784–792. Identification of phytoliths from wild vs domesticated Zea is proposed using a stereological approach. Size parameters were found to be stable. 2 figures, 5 tables.
Salgado-Labouriau, ML 1973 Contribuição à palinologia dos Cerrados. (Contribution to the palynology of the Cerrados.) Editoria Academia Brasileira de Ciências 242-247; 261-262. (Portuguese, English summary). Discussion of palynology briefly touches on phytoliths.
Sangster, AG (ms) 1967 Some environmental factors affecting silica deposition in higher plants with special reference to the Gramineae. PhD dissertation, University College of North Wales: 181 p. Deposition patterns of Si in 3 grass subfamilies correlate with age and external Si concentration. A sequence of cell types becomes silicified with time by transport and deposition. 10 plates (15 photos), 28 figures, 20 tables.
Sangster, AG 1968 Studies of opaline silica deposits on the leaf of Sieglingia decumbens (L.) Bernh., using the scanning electron microscope. Annals of Botany 32: 237–240. Early SEM study of samples describing in detail costal idioblast (dumbbell), long-cell and sclerenchyma-fiber phytoliths. Species has mixed panicoid-festucoid leaf anatomy. 2 plates (12 photos).
Sangster, AG 1970a Intracellular silica deposition in immature leaves in three species of the Gramineae. Annals of Botany 34: 245–257. Heath grass, Bermuda grass and rice were moved from minimal to higher Si solutions for different times and wet-ashed. Si was deposited by 2 days and was confined to costal idioblasts of expanding tissue; bulliform cell phytoliths formed later in leaf tips. 4 figures.
Sangster, AG 1970b Intracellular silica deposition in mature and senescent leaves of Sieglingia decumbens (L.) Bernh. Annals of Botany 34: 557–570. Methods were as in Sangster (1970a). Si deposition in heath grass decreased with increasing tissue age for idioblasts (dumbbells) and long cells but increased for bulliform cells. 4 plates (29 photos), 5 figures, 2 tables.
Sangster, AG 1977a Characteristics of silica deposition in Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. (crabgrass). Annals of Botany 41: 341–350. Methods were as in Sangster (1970a), with SEM and EPM. Si was deposited by 2 days in idioblasts at the leaf base and prickle hairs at the leaf tip, followed by simultaneous waves of deposition in opposite directions. 3 plates (32 photos), 2 figures.
Sangster, AG 1977b Electron-probe microassay studies of silicon deposits in the roots of two species of Andropogon. Canadian Journal of Botany 55: 880–887. Samples were freeze-dried and studied by SEM, EPM and light microscopy. Si was confined to the ITW of endodermal cells, with size and shape similar in both species. 12 figures (8 photos).
Sangster, AG 1978a Silicon in the roots of higher plants. American Journal of Botany 65: 929–935. 2 freeze-dried grass spp were studied with SEM, TEM, EPM and EDX, and compared with 3 dicots and 12 other grasses. Si distribution depended on phylogeny rather than basic root anatomy. Focus is not on Si shape. 6 figures (6 photos), 1 table.
Sangster, AG 1978b The distribution of silicon deposits in the rhizomes of two Andropogon species. Canadian Journal of Botany 56: 148–156. Methods were as in Sangster (1977b). Si was confined to ITW of cortex just outside the stele and (in A. gerardii only) sheath cells around central vascular bundles. 18 figures (14 photos).
Sangster, AG 1978c Electron-probe microassays for silicon in the roots of Sorghastrum nutans and Phragmites communis. Canadian Journal of Botany 56: 1074–1080. Methods were as in Sangster (1977b) plus EDX. Si was confined to the endodermis ITW in S. nutans nodal roots; none was in P. communis roots. 10 figures (8 photos).
Sangster, AG 1983a Anatomical features and silica deposition patterns in the rhizomes of the grasses Sorghastrum nutans and Phragmites australis. Canadian Journal of Botany 61: 752–761. Samples were studied with SEM, EPM, EDX and light microscopy. Si was in 4 zones in S. nutans but was absent in P. australis. 18 figures (13 photos), 1 table.
Sangster, AG 1983b Silicon distribution in the nodal roots of the grass Miscanthus sacchariflorus. Canadian Journal of Botany 61: 1199–1205. Methods were as in Sangster (1983a). Si was restricted to aggregates on the ITW of the endodermis, as in 7 other Andropogoneae and in contrast to roots of other tribes. 10 figures (10 photos).
Sangster, AG 1985 Silicon distribution and anatomy of the grass rhizome, with special reference to Miscanthus sacchariflorus (Maxim.) Hackel. Annals of Botany 15: 621–634. It was studied with SEM, EPM and EDX. Results for 8 other spp are summarized. Si was in epidermis and variable internally. 5 figures (18 photos), 2 tables.
Sangster, AG, Hodson, MJ and Parry, DW 1983 Silicon deposition and anatomical studies in the inflorescence bracts of four Phalaris species with their possible relevance to carcinogenesis. New Phytologist 93: 105–122. Si depositional patterns and anatomy of inflorescence bracts from 4 spp are reported from SEM and EPM analyses. Hairs and sheet fragments produce sharp fibers that have been implicated in carcinogenesis. 6 figures (47 photos).
Sangster, AG, Hodson, MJ, Parry, DW and Rees, JA 1983 A developmental study of silicification in the trichomes and associated epidermal structures of the inflorescence bracts of the grass, Phalaris canariensis L. Annals of Botany 52: 171–187. Samples were studied with SEM, EPM and light microscopy. Silicification began before emergence and increased with time, varying among structures of the inflorescence bracts. 4 figures (48 photos), 5 tables.
Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1969 Some factors in relation to bulliform cell silicification in the grass leaf. Annals of Botany 33: 315–323. Heath and Bermuda grass and rice were wet-ashed. Bulliform phytoliths formed by day 2, mostly in leaf tips by day 16, but no more numerous with 500 ppm Si than 50 ppm. 2 plates (10 photos), 2 figures, 1 table.
Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1971 Silica deposition in the grass leaf in relation to transpiration and the effect of dinitrophenol. Annals of Botany 35: 667–677. Cultured detached leaves of Bermuda and heath grass formed phytoliths, but leaves coated with oil to reduce transpiration did not. Dinitrophenol, added to inhibit Si uptake, shifted Si deposition from mostly abaxial (idioblast) to mostly adaxial (stoma) sites. Germanium dioxide was deposited in sites similar to SiO2 but more extra-than intracellular. 1 figure, 2 tables.
Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1976a Endodermal silicon deposits and their linear distribution in developing roots of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Annals of Botany 40: 361–371. Development of Si deposits in sorghum roots (SEM and EPM) indicates a linear gradient from proximal to distal regions. Deposition conditions are discussed. 4 plates (48 photos).
Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1976b Endodermal silicification in mature, nodal roots of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Annals of Botany 40: 373–379. Si content was analyzed by SEM and EPM. Dome-shaped aggregates occur on the ITW of the endodermis. 1 plate (12 photos).
Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1976c The ultrastructure and electron-probe microassay of silicon deposits in the endodermis of the seminal roots of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. Annals of Botany 40: 447–459. Formative processes and ultrastructure from TEM and EPM indicate Si is involved in the ITW. Transport and deposition mechanisms are proposed. 8 plates (27 photos).
Sangster, AG and Parry, DW 1981 Ultrastructure of silica deposits in higher plants. In Simpson, TL and Volcani, BE, eds, Silicon and Siliceous Structures in Biological Systems. New York, Springer-Verlag: 383–407. Structure of Si deposits differs between aerial and subterranean organs. Ultrastructure of aggregates, cell-wall deposits and intercellular deposits is described. 14 figures, 1 table.
Sase, T 1980 (Plant opal analysis of buried soils immediately beneath the Nanbu pumice layer.) Daiyonki Kenkyu (Quaternary Research) 19: 117-124. (Japanese, English summary). Phytoliths from sediment below a pumice layer indicate grass (Panicoid and Sasaoid) and lesser amounts of trees. 2 plates (61 photos), 4 figures, 2 tables.
Sase, T 1981 (Analytical study of plant opal in the buried soil immediately beneath the Hachinohe pumice bed.) Daiyonki Kenkyu (Quaternary Research) 20: 15-20. (Japanese, English summary). Poaceae grasses and conifers are identified by phytolith analysis. A cooler climate than now is indicated. 2 plates (67 photos), 4 figures, 1 table.
Sase, T 1986 (Opal phytolith analysis of volcanic ash soils from recent Towada ashes.) Pedorojisuto (Pedologist) 30: 102-114. (Japanese, English summary). Vegetative history of 3 soils derived from volcanic ash contains Bambusoid, Panicoid, conifer and broad-leaved plant phytoliths. 2 plates (46 photos), 3 figures, 2 tables.
Sase, T, Hosono, M, Utsugawa, T, Kato, S and Komamura, M 1987. Opal phytolith analysis of the Kanto Loam Formation in Musashino Upland, Kanto Plain, Japan. Daiyonki Kenkyu (Quaternary Research) 26: 1–11. (Japanese, English summary). Climatic reconstructions of five phytolith zones are correlated to major glacial epochs in Europe. Phytolith classification is illustrated. 1 plate (45 photos), 3 figures, 2 tables.
Sase, T and Kato, Y 1976 (The study on phytogenic particles, especially, on plant opals, in humic horizons of present and buried volcanic ash soils. I. The problem on the source of plant opals.) Daiyonki Kenkyu (Quaternary Research) 15: 21-33. (Japanese, English summary). Grass phytoliths are correlated to taxonomic group (Panicoid, Sasaoid, Festucoid, Chloridoid), although some are more widely distributed (Fan, Point, Elongate). Different types occur in different sites. 1 plate (23 photos), 6 figures, 6 tables.
Sase, T, Kato, Y and Makino, S 1985 (Plant opal analysis of volcanic ash soils at the foots of Mt. Fuji and Mt. Amagi.) Pedorojisuto (Pedologist) 29: 44-59. (Japanese, English summary). Phytoliths from volcanic soils were used to reconstruct the vegetation. Phytolith types are illustrated. 2 plates (37 photos), 4 figures, 5 tables.
Sase, T and Kondo, R 1974 (The study of opal phytoliths in the humus horizon of buried volcanic ash soils in Hokkaido.) Obihiro Chikusan Daigaku Gakujutsu Kenkyo Hokoku Dai-I-Bu, Japan (Research Bulletin of Obihiro Zootechnical University, Series I) 8: 465-483. (Japanese, English summary). Amount and type of phytoliths in buried volcanic ash soils formed the basis for vegetation and climatic reconstructions. Identification of seven morphological phytolith groups was based on examination of 23 grass spp. 3 figures, 7 tables.
Schall, WM 1943 An investigation of the presence of siliceous rods in the secondary wall of woody tissue. Madrona 7: 8–14. No evidence of a “skeleton” of silica rods was found in woody tissue. 1 photo, 1 table.
Schellenberg, HC 1908 The remains of plants from the North Kurgan, Anau. In Pumpelly, R, ed, Explorations in Turkestan: Expedition of 1904 2: 471–473. Washington, DC, Carnegie Institution. Silica skeletons of wheat and barley were identified in brick samples. Epidermal patterns are described, emphasizing differences between the two species. 1 plate (10 figures).
Schreve-Brinkman, EJ 1978 A palynological study of the Upper Quaternary sequence in the El Abra corridor and rock shelters (Colombia). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 25: 1–109. Reconstruction of the climate and vegetation in last Glacial and Holocene periods in the Colombian Eastern Cordillera. A short examination of phytoliths presents shapes from 3 spp. 1 plate (13 photos), 16 figures.
Schuyler, AE 1971 Scanning electron microscopy of achene epidermis in species of Scirpus (Cyperaceae) and related genera. Academy of Naturla Sciences of Philadelphia, Proceedings 123: 29–52. SEM examination of achenes from 58 sedge spp indicates that cell wall and internal structure are taxonomically useful. 129 figures (129 photos).
Scurfield, G, Anderson, CA and Segnit, ER 1974 Silica in woody stems. Australian Journal of Botany 22: 211–229. Two types of silica deposits, aggregate grains and dense silica, were observed in 32 woody perennials. Location in cells and morphology are described. 40 figures (38 photos).
Scurfield, G, Michell, AJ and Silva, SR 1973 Crystals in woody stems. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society of London 66: 277–289. Location, composition and crystal habit for 40 woody perennials are reported from SEM, XRD and other analyses. 4 plates (22 photos), 3 figures.
Scurfield, G, Segnit, ER and Anderson, CA 1974 Silicification of wood. Proceedings of the Scanning Electron Microscope Conference 1974: 389–396. Discussion of Australian petrified wood includes short summary and 2 photos of Si deposition in living specimens. 41 photos.
Sendulsky, T and Labouriau, LG 1966 Corpos silicosos de gramineas dos Cerrados. I. (Silica bodies of grasses from “Cerrados.” I.) In Labouriau, LG, ed, IIo — Simposio Sobre o Cerrado, Anais Academia Brasileira de Ciencias 38, Supplemento: 159-170. (Portuguese, English summary). From Labouriau 1983: Leaf, stem and inflorescence material from herbarium specimens was dry-ashed. The forest grass Pseudoechinolaena polystachya had practically no Si, unlike 132 other Brazilian grasses studied. Camera lucida drawings of silica bodies from 60 grass spp. 60 plates.
Sharma, M and Rao, KR 1970 Investigations on the occurrence of silica in Indian timbers. Indian Forester 96: 740–754. Of 134 spp of timber from India, 68 contain silica. Percentage, size, form and distribution data are presented. 21 photos, 1 table.
Sharma, OP 1972 Anatomy of Scirpus squarrosus. Current Science (Bangalore) 41: 494–497. Anatomical description of this sedge includes silica body morphology and distribution. Calcium oxalate crystals are present in stem and leaf tissues. 14 figures.
Sharp, RB 1962 Plant silica: An abrasive constituent of plant matter? Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 7: 214–220. Introductory examination of plant silica focuses on abrasion and wear potential. Milling does cause damage to silica structures, and appears to be responsible for heavy wear patterns. 7 figures (17 photos), 1 table.
Shaw, RB and Smeins, FE 1979 Epidermal characteristics of the callus in Eriochloa (Poaceae). American Journal of Botany 66: 907–913. 19 Eriochloa and 5 other spp were studied with SEM. Silica bodies are used as a taxonomic character and illustrated but not described at length. 20 figures (20 photos), 1 table.
Shaw, RB and Smeins, FE 1981 Some anatomical and morphological characteristics of the North American species of Eriochloa (Poaceae: Paniceae). Botanical Gazette 142: 534–544. 12 spp were studied by SEM and light microscopy. Si dumbbells, nodular shapes and crosses were among the characters supporting inclusion of Eriochloa among Panicoids. 25 figures (25 photos), 1 table.
Simmonds, DH, St. Clair, MS and Collins, JD 1970 Surface structure of wheat and its contribution to the dust problem. Cereal Science Today 15: 230–234. Examination of wheat and wheat dust indicates presence of brush hairs and pericarp fragments. Variations between wheat varieties are briefly discussed. 5 figures (37 photos).
Singh, V and Pande, PC 1977 A study of leaf epidermal structures in some Scitamineae. Geobios (Jodhpur) 4: 18–20. Brief summary of epidermal features from 14 spp focuses on stomatal types. Silica bodies are mentioned. 13 figures, 1 table.
Smith, MB (ms) 1982 Phytolith development and morphology in Zea mays L. and Zea mexicana (Schrader) Kuntze. MS thesis, University of Massachusetts: 199 p. Developmental processes and deposition patterns of Si in maize and teosinte differ with species, age and leaf position. Controlled conditions included Si-free. 97 figures, 33 tables.
Smith, MB, Kaplan, L and Davis, EA 1986 Biogenic silica: Phytolith formation in maize tissue culture. In Rovner, I, ed, Plant opal phytolith analysis in archaeology and paleoecology: Proceedings of the 1984 Phytolith Research Workshop, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Occasional Papers of The Phytolitharien 1: 141–147. Shoots and callus tissue from 2 maize races were cultured in Si-free and Si-rich environments for 9 and 23 days and studied as spodograms. Phytoliths formed only in samples grown in Si-rich media, while Si-free samples had fragile cell walls and collapsed trichomes. 1 figure (2 photos).
Smithson, F 1956a Plant opal in soil. Nature 178: 107. Brief report of phytoliths in British soils includes a photomicrograph of Agrostis tenuis phytoliths. 3 photos. 1958 Grass opal in British soils. Journal of Soil Science 9: 148–155. Shape descriptions of phytoliths in grasses, sediments and dung. Phytoliths from Nardus stricta are considered distinct; others are identifiable to tribe or a group of tribes. 13 photos.
Soderstrom, TR 1982 Cryptochloa dressleri (Poaceae), a new Bambusoid grass from Panama. Brittonia 34: 25–29. Description of the species specifically discusses distribution and shape of silica bodies. 1 figure.
Söndahl, MR and Labouriau, LG 1970 Corpos silicosos de gramíneas dos Cerrados. IV. (Silica bodies of grasses from the “Cerrados.” IV.) Pesquisa Agropecuraria Brasileira 5: 183–207. (Portuguese, English abstract, unpublished translation by Hochberg, V, Hyduke, N and Geis, JW.) From Labouriau 1983: Leaf, stem and inflorescence material from herbarium specimens was combination wet-and dry-ashed. Camera lucida drawings of silica bodies from 19 grass spp. 20 figures.
Soni, SL, Kaufman, PB and Bigelow, WC 1970 Electron microprobe analysis of the distribution of silicon in leaf epidermal cells of the oat plant. Phytomorphology 20: 350–363. Distribution of Si in epidermal cell types is given for leaf blade, sheath and ligule. The distribution is not equal through the tissue. 51 photos, 3 tables.
Soni, SL, Kaufman, PB and Bigelow, WC 1972a Electron probe analysis of silicon and other elements in leaf epidermal cells of the rice plant (Oryza sativa L.). American Journal of Botany 59: 38–42. Study of silica cells in leaf sheath and blade indicates that other elements are inhibited by presence of Si. The mechanisms of inhibition are discussed. 7 photos, 1 table.
Soni, SL, Kaufman, PB and Bigelow, WC 1972b Electron microprobe analysis of silicon and other elements in developing silica cells of the leaf and internode of Cyperus alternifolius. Annals of Botany 36: 611–619. Accumulation of elements changes during development of silica cells. 1 plate (6 photos), 2 tables.
Soni, SL, Kaufman, PB and Bigelow, WC 1972c Electron microprobe analysis of silica cells in leaf epidermal cells of Cyperus alternifolius. Plant and Soil 36: 121–128. Freeze-dried peels showed that Si retards accumulation of K and enhances it for Ca, Mg, Na, P, Mn and Fe. Si cell shapes are not discussed. 1 plate (3 photos), 2 tables.
Soni, SL, Kaufman, PB and Jones, RA 1972 Electron microprobe analysis of the distribution of silicon and other elements in rice leaf epidermis. Botanical Gazette 133: 66–72. Silica cells, trichomes and epidermal cell walls of leaf blade and sheath were found to be sites of Si deposition. Si affects the accumulation of other elements. 20 photos, 2 tables.
Soni, SL and Parry, DW 1973 Electron probe microanalysis of silicon deposition in the inflorescence bracts of the rice plant (Oryza sativa). American Journal of Botany 60:111–116. Si deposition is heavy external to the outer epidermis and sparse within the epidermal cells. Cell walls accumulate Si to the interior when specific accumulation sites are filled. 36 photos.
Sowers, AE and Thurston, EL 1979 Ultrastructural evidence for uptake of silicon-containing silicic acid analogs by Urtica pilulifera and incorporation into cell wall silica. Protoplasma 101: 11–22. Si deposits in nettle stinging cells require not only Si in groundwater but also a specific molecular structure. Cell wall Si is under control of binding site parameters. 18 photos, 1 table.
Srinivasan, J, Dayanandan, P and Kaufman, PB 1979 Silica distribution in Equisetum hyemale var affine L. (Engelm) in relation to the negative geotropic response. New Phytologist 83: 623–626. Investigation of Si deposition in horsetail indicates a basipetal pattern. Young specimens have a negative geotrophic response, whereas mature specimens with more Si do not respond. 1 plate (5 photos), 1 table.
Srivastava, AK 1978 Study of leaf epidermis in the genus, Digitaria Rich, Gramineae. Journal of the Indian Botanical Society 57: 155–160. Epidermal patterns of 6 spp show taxonomic differences at the sub-generic level. Morphology and location of silica bodies is described. 32 figures, 2 tables.
Stählin, A and Tirtapradja, H 1971 Über die Aufnahme und Einlagerung von Silizium in Futtergräsern. (Uptake and deposition of silicon in fodder grasses.) Zeitschrift für Acker und Pflanzenbau 134: 295–312. (German, English summary). Si content and phytolith morphology is described for 6 spp. Weather (moisture) and manuring affect Si-uptake. 3 figures, 5 tables.
Stant, MY 1973 Scanning electron microscopy of silica bodies and other epidermal features in Gibasis (Tradescantia) leaf. Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal 66: 233–244. SEM analysis of epidermal morphology of 3 species gives detailed information on shape and distribution of cell types. Focus is on hairs, papillae and silica bodies as taxonomic markers. 5 plates (36 photos), 2 tables.
Sterling, C 1947 Sclereid formation in the shoot of Pseudotsuga taxifolia. American Journal of Botany 34: 45–52. Development of sclereids is described and illustrated. Although mineralization is not discussed, these cells can silicify. 19 figures (10 photos).
Sterling, C 1967 Crystalline silica in plants. American Journal of Botany 54: 840–844. Crystalline and amorphous Si is reported from Fragaria, horsetails and tabashir by XRD. Superficial location and/or young ages are associated with amorphous deposits. 4 photos, 1 table.
Stewart, DRM 1965 The epidermal characters of grasses, with special reference to East African plain species. Botanische Jahrbucher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte, und Pflanzengeographie 84: 63–116, 117-174. Description of grass epidermal characteristics for 163 spp (57 genera) includes distribution and morphology of silica bodies. The epidermis is taxonomically useful for identification of leaf fragments.
Suess, E (ms) 1966 Opal phytoliths. MS thesis, Kansas State University: 77 p. 7 grass spp from the central plains, US, were dry-ashed. Short-and long-grass prairie yielded, respectively, chloridoid (cuboid) and panicoid (dumbbell-shaped) phytoliths (also in dust and soil samples). Gives details about measurement and statistical treatments. 8 plates (29 photos), 5 figures, 3 tables, 4 appendices.
Sustar, F 1976 Horoloska in taksonomska problematika kompleksa Brachypodium pinnatum na območju Slovenije. (The chorology [sic] and taxonomy of the complex Brachypodium pinnatum in Slovenia.) Bioloski Vestnik 24: 1–11. (Yugoslavian, German summary). Description of the Brachypodium pinnatum-complex includes epidermal anatomy. 6 figures (4 photos).
Suzuki, H 1937 Studies on the relations between the anatomical characters of the rice plant and its susceptibility to blast disease. Tokyo Imperial University, College of Agriculture Journal 14: 181–264. Rice grown under wet conditions has thicker outer cell wall and “silicated” layer than under dry conditions. Other factors also correlating to thicker walls include cell type. 8 plates (39 photos), 47 tables.
Swenson, CF, Le Tourneau, D and Erickson, LC 1964 Silica in Medusahead. Weeds 12: 16–18. Si content of Elymus caput-medusae is presented by plant part and age. 2 figures, 3 tables.
Sz-Borsos, O 1974 Notes on the leaf anatomy of the Brachypodium pinnatum species complex. Acta Botanica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 20: 13–21. External and internal morphology differs between B. pinnatum and B. rupestre. Phytolith morphology is illustrated. 4 figures (5 photos).
Takahashi, E, Tanaka, T and Miyake, Y 1981 Distribution of silica accumulator plants in the plant kingdom (6). Commelinales, Cyperales, and some dicotyledoneae families (Cucurbitaceae and Urticaceae). Japanese Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 52: 511–515. Mineral content of 63 spp indicates silica-type, meso-type, calcium-type and non-silica type plants.
Takeoka, Y 1963 Notes on some grasses. VIII. Botanical Gazette 124: 264–270. 56 spp were hand-sectioned. “Oryzoid” silica bodies (dumbbells perpendicular to the blade) usually were found in Oryzeae but never in Erharteae, whose bilobates were parallel with the blade. Disarticulated phytoliths were not addressed. 28 figures, 1 table.
Takeoka, Y, Inoue, S and Kawano, S 1959 Notes on some grasses. IX. Systematic significance of bicellular microhairs of leaf epidermis. Botanical Gazette 120: 80–91. 4 measurement ratios are given for 238 spp from 4 subfamilies. 2 groups of index values correspond to panicoid and chloridoid types and distinguish subfamilies. Bambuseae and other genera may have taxonomically significant microhairs. 156 figures, 8 tables.
Takeoka, Y, Kaufman, PB and Matsumura, O 1979 Comparative microscopy of idioblasts in lemma epidermis of some C3 and C4 grasses (Poaceae) using sump method. Phytomorphology 29: 330–337. 21 spp were studied with light microscopy. C4 spp had 2.5 times more Si cells per unit area than C3 spp, but shapes were not described or counted. 29 figures (27 photos), 1 table.
Takeoka, Y, Kondo, K and Kaufman, PB 1983 Leaf surface fine-structures in rice plants cultured under shaded and non-shaded conditions. Nihon Sakumotsa Gakkai Kiji (Proceedings of the Crop Science Society of Japan or Japanese Journal of Crop Science) 52: 534–543. Wax on rice cuticles was compared from shaded and non-shaded growth conditions. Amount of wax depended on cell type (including silica cells) as well as shading conditions. 18 photos.
Takeoka, Y, Matsumura, O and Kaufman, PB 1983 Studies on silicification of epidermal tissues of grasses as investigated by soft x-ray image analysis. I. On the method to detect and calculate frequency of silica bodies in bulliform cells. Nihon Sakumotsa Gakkai Kiji (Proceedings of the Crop Science Society of Japan or Japanese Journal of Crop Science) 52: 544–550. Area and distribution of silica bodies were analyzed by SIAM. Four cultivars exhibit distributional differences in the leaf blade. 7 figures (3 photos).
Takeoka, Y, Wada, T, Naito, K and Kaufman, PB 1984 Studies on silicification of epidermal tissues of grasses as investigated by soft x-ray image analysis. II. Differences in frequency of silica bodies in bulliform cells at different positions in the leaves of rice plants. Nihon Sakumotsa Gakkai Kiji (Proceedings of the Crop Science Society of Japan or Japanese Journal of Crop Science) 53: 197–203. Silica body distribution differs within the leaf blade of rice: tip to base, left to right, costal and intercostal. Differences were correlated to degrees of transpiration. 4 figures (1 photo), 2 tables.
Tatsuhara, A and Fujimaki, Y 1987 (Food habit analysis by using opal phytoliths in Cervus-nipponyesoensis.) Research Bulletin of Obihiro University, Series I 15: 85-90. (Japanese, English summary and captions). Examination of 66 spp indicates identifiable phytoliths in 5 spp, 2 genera, 2 subfamilies and 2 families. Phytoliths in deer feces indicate the main dietary components. 2 figures (14 photos), 1 table.
Taugourdeau-Lantz, J, Laroche, J, Lachkar, G and Pons, D 1976 La silice chez les vegetaux: Probleme des phytolithaires. (Silica in plants: Problem of phytoliths.) Travaux du Laboratoire de Micropaleontologie, Univ. Pierre et Marie Curie 5: 255–303. (French). Review of physiological and morphological phytolith data distinguishes three types of deposition. A revision of the parataxonomic groups is proposed. 6 plates (68 photos), 4 figures, 6 tables.
Teixeira da Silva, S and Labouriau, LG 1970 Corpos silicosos de gramineas dos Cerrados. III. (Silica bodies of grasses from the “Cerrados.” III.) Pesquisa Agropecuraria Brasileira 5: 167–182. (Portuguese, English abstract, unpublished translation by Hochberg, V, Geis, JW and Hyduke, N.) From Labouriau 1983: Leaf, stem, and inflorescence material from herbarium specimens was combination wet-and dry-ashed. Camera lucida drawings of silica bodies from 10 grass spp. 11 figures.
Terrell, EE and Wergin, WP 1979 Scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray analysis of leaf epidermis in Zizania (Gramineae). Scanning Electron Microscopy 3: 81–88. Leaf epidermal morphology is described from SEM and x-ray analysis of 4 species. Si is higher in silica-bodies than in the papillae. 18 photos.
Terrell, EE and Wergin, WP 1981 Epidermal features and silica deposition in lemmas and awns of Zizania (Gramineae). American Journal of Botany 68: 697–707. 4 spp were studied with SEM and EDX. Differences among pistillate lemma phytoliths of different species were judged taxonomically important, but even phytoliths with little taxonomic value are illustrated and clearly described. 22 figures (22 photos), 1 table.
Ter Welle, BJH 1976a On the occurrence of silica grains in the secondary xylem of the Chrysobalanaceae. International Association of Wood Anatomists, Bulletin 1976(2): 19–29. Silica grains occur in ray cells of 62 spp (12 genera); three distribution patterns are described. Diameter of the globular grains is influenced by distance from the cambium and environmental conditions. 6 figures (5 photos), 5 tables.
— 1976b Silica grains in woody plants of the neotropics, especially Surinam. In Baas, P, Bolton, AJ and Catling, DM, eds, Wood Structure in Biological and Technological Research. Leiden Botanical Series 3, Leiden, University Press: 107-142. Silica grains were identified in secondary xylem of 300 genera. Shape, size and surface texture are examined. 2 plates (11 photos), 2 tables.
Theobald, WL, Krahulik, JL and Rollins, RC 1979 Trichome description and classification. In Metcalfe, CR and Chalk, L, eds, Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Second edition, London, Clarendon Press: 40-53. Detailed description of trichome morphology. Mineralization is not discussed but trichomes are often deposition sites. 6 figures, 1 table.
Thomasson, JR 1978a Epidermal patterns of the lemma in some fossil and living grasses and their phylogenetic significance. Science 199: 975–977. Epidermal cell patterns of fossil grass floral bracts indicate taxonomic distinctions. Comparison to modern genera illustrates phylogenetic relations. 2 figures (7 photos).
Thomasson, JR 1978b Clearing, cuticle removal, and staining for the fertile bracts (lemmas and paleas) of grass anthoecia. Stain Technology 53: 233–236. Preparation of grass inflorescence parts is described. Epidermal cell patterns are taxonomically significant. 8 photos.
Thomasson, JR 1980a Archaeoleersia nebraskensis gen. et sp. Nov. (Gramineae-Oryzeae), a new fossil grass from the Late Tertiary of Nebraska. American Journal of Botany 67: 876–882. Description of a new grass genus and species based on paleas and lemmas includes silica cells. Comparisons to modern taxa indicate similarities to Leersia ligularis. 11 photos, 1 table.
Thomasson, JR 1980b Paleoriocoma (Gramineae, Stipeae) from the Miocene of Nebraska: Taxonomic and phylogenetic significance. Systematic Botany 5: 233–240. Epidermal patterns of fossil grass paleas and lemmas are similar to those of the modern genus Oryzopsis. Evolutionary relations of these genera, Stipa and Nassella are discussed. 11 photos.
Thomasson, JR 1981 Micromorphology of the lemma in Stipa robusta and Stipa viridula (Gramineae; Stipeae): Taxonomic significance. The Southwest Naturalist 26: 211–214. Epidermal cells of the lemma are described in 2 spp of Stipa. The presence/absence and distribution pattern of silica cells are taxonomically useful. 4 figures (2 photos).
Thomasson, JR 1983 Carex graceii sp. n., and Cyperocarpus eliasii sp. n., Cyperocarpus terrestris sp. n., and Cyperocarpus pulcherrima sp. n. (Cyperaceae) from the Miocene of Nebraska. American Journal of Botany 70: 435–449. 4 new Miocene sedges are described from fossilized achene and perigynia material. Epidermal anatomy includes silica cells. 38 photos, 1 table.
Thomasson, JR, Nelson, ME and Zakrzewski, RJ 1986 A fossil grass (Gramineae: Chloridoideae) from the Miocene with Kranz anatomy. Science 233: 876–878. Leaf epidermal characters of a fossil are comparable to modern chloridoid grasses. Dumbbell silica bodies are noted, indicating C4 photosynthesis. 10 photos.
Thomson, MC (ms) 1982 Phytolith studies: Techniques and their application to the examination of phytoliths from plants and sediments collected at Tel Michal, Israel. MS Plan B paper, University of Minnesota: 175 p. Preparation and examination techniques for plants and sediments from a study of material from Israel. Phytoliths from 4 plants are reported, focusing on trapezoid types. 10 plates (66 photos), 10 figures, 11 tables.
Thomson, M and Rapp, G, Jr 1989 Paleobotany from phytoliths. In Herzog, Z, Rapp, G, Jr and Negbi, O, eds, Excavations at Tel Michal, Israel. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press: 223-225. Brief application of phytolith analysis to paleobotany at Tel Michal presents analysis of 4 grasses and 2 sediments. Overall phytolith shape and size ranges of short trapezoids are discussed for 3 spp.
Thurston, EL 1974 Morphology, fine structure, and ontogeny of the stinging emergence of Urtica dioica. American Journal of Botany 61: 809–817. The stinging structure of nettles, studied by SEM, TEM, EDX and light microscopy, was found to have an elongate stinging cell and a multicellular pedestal. The stinging cell’s apical wall is composed of silica bodies that decrease basipetally in concentration; these are measured but not described as to shape. 30 figures (28 photos).
Toivonen, H and Timonen, T 1976 Perigynium and achene epidermis in some species of Carex, subg. Vignea (Cyperaceae), studied by scanning electron microscopy. Annales Botanici Fennici 13: 49–59. Epidermal characters of 23 spp are described by SEM, including silica bodies. Classification of the species is discussed. 48 photos (including good illustrations of cell shapes), 3 tables.
Tomlinson, PB 1961 Anatomy of the Monocotyledons. II. Palmae. Oxford, Clarendon Press: 453 p. Description of palm anatomy and morphology includes silica body and stegmata description and morphology. A key for identification of major groups is based in part on silica bodies (p 71). 9 plates (52 photos), 45 figures.
— 1969 Anatomy of the Monocotyledons. III. Commelinales-Zingiberales. Oxford, Clarendon Press: 446 p. Anatomical description of 16 monocotyledon families including silica body shape and location. Distribution in the families is summarized (pp 410-412). 86 figures.
Twiss, PC 1983 Dust deposition and opal phytoliths in the Great Plains. In Caldwell, WH, Schultz, CB and Stout, TM, eds, Man and the Changing Environments in the Great Plains, Transactions of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences 11: 73-82. Patterns and rates of dust deposition and grass phytolith analysis yield information on the development of the Great Plains. Distribution of phytolith types in 22 grasses. 2 figures, 10 tables.
— 1986 Morphology of opal phytoliths in C3 and C4 grasses. In Rovner, I, ed, Plant opal phytolith analysis in archaeology and paleoecology: Proceedings of the 1984 Phytolith Research Workshop, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, Occasional Papers of The Phytolitharien 1: 4-11. Festucoid class phytoliths (circular, elliptical, crescent, rectangular or oblong shapes) occur only in C3 spp, generally reflecting high latitudes or high altitudes. Chloridoid shapes (saddles or barrels and double axes) occur only in C4 spp (eg, short grass prairie) and indicate warm, arid regions. Panicoid shapes (crosses, dumbbells) are problematic since the subfamily Panicoideae has C3 and C4 grasses even in the same genera. Assumes that Festucoid, Chloridoid, and Panicoid class phytoliths do not occur in other subfamilies (but see Mulholland 1986, 1989).
— 1987 Grass-opal phytoliths as climatic indicators of the Great Plains Pleistocene. In Johnson, WC, ed, Quaternary Environments of Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey Guidebook Series 5: 179-188. Grass silica bodies are correlated to three subfamilies and C3/C4 pathways. Important paleoclimatic information is produced by phytoliths, especially when used in conjunction with palynomorphs. 11 figures (25 photos).
Twiss, PC, Suess, E and Smith, RM 1969 Morphological classification of grass phytoliths. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 33: 109–115. Widely cited article. Leaves of 17 spp of the Central Plains, US, were dry-ashed as spodograms and in disarticulation. Si bodies were classified as distinctive Festucoid, Chloridoid and Panicoid as well as redundant Elongate types. The distinctive types were recovered from soils and paleosols but not Pleistocene sediments. Useful review of phytolith systematics. 4 figures, 4 tables.
Uhl NW 1976a Developmental studies in Ptychosperma (Palmae). I. The inflorescence and the flower cluster. American Journal of Botany 63: 82-96. The inflorescences of 2 spp of arecoid palms are described in detail. Raphides and spherical silica bodies are present in the structures. 33 figures, 2 tables.
Uhl NW 1976b Developmental studies in Ptychosperma (Palmae). II. The staminate and pistillate flowers. American Journal of Botany 63: 97–109. Structure and development of flowers in 2 spp of arecoid palms is described in detail. Raphides and spherical silica bodies are reported in the structures. 46 figures.
Umemoto, K 1973 Mode of morphological forms of crystalline inorganic component in plants: Silicon bodies in wheat. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 21: 1391–1393. Shape and location of silica bodies in flag leaves of 4 wheat spp is inherited by descendants (2 amphidiploids). 2 photos.
Umlauf, M 1989 Occurrence of unusual short cell types in tropical grasses. Phytolith Basic Research Project, Technical Paper No 1, Columbia, University of Missouri. The morphology of unusual short cell phytoliths is described; distribution in 30 grasses is reported. 1 figure, 3 tables.
Uphof, JCT 1962 Plant Hairs. Berlin, Gebruder Borntraeger: 292 p. Comprehensive treatment of plant hairs includes information on Si and Ca incrustations. Description and classification of types of hairs are helpful since many phytoliths originate in hairs.
Velain, C 1878 Étude microscopique des verres résultant de la fusion des cendres de graminées. (Microscopic study of glasses resulting in the fusion of grass ashes.) Bulletin de la Societe Mineralogique de France 1: 113–124. (French). Vitreous masses of glass form by fusion of Si in grasses and other plants during fires. Glass from 3 fires described. 2 figures.
Vignal, C 1969 Contribution à l’étude épidermique de quelques Cypéracées: Carex, Cyperus, Scirpus et Kobresia. (Contribution to the epidermal study of several sedges: Carex, Cyperus, Scirpus and Kobresia.) Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseilles 42: 313-321. (French). Epidermal characteristics (including phytoliths) can aid in taxonomic determinations. 7 sedge spp are described. 2 plates (13 figures).
Von Aderkas, P, Rogerson, A and de Freitas, ASW 1986 Silicon accumulation in fronds of the ostrich fern, Matteuccia struthiopteris. Canadian Journal of Botany 64: 696–699; Si was detected in mature petioles by EM and XRD. Deposition patterns are random and restricted to cell walls; no aggregates were observed. 6 figures, 1 table.
Watanabe, N 1968 Spodographic evidence of rice from prehistoric Japan. Journal of the Faculty of Science 3: 217–235. Spodograms, epidermal ash or silica skeletons, contain features that are characteristic of grass taxa. Rice can be identified by spodograms recovered from sediments. 3 plates (14 photos).
Watanabe, N 1970 A spodographic analysis of millet from prehistoric Japan. Journal of the Faculty of Science 3: 357–384. Rice and millet (Setaria italica) were identified by silica cells and other epidermal features. Comparison was made to spodograms of 28 varieties of millet (including Panicum miliaceum and Echinochloa crus-galli). 5 plates (62 photos).
Waterkeyn, L and Bienfait, A 1967 Les émergences callosiques et silicifiées des feuilles de Sélaginelles. (The callosic and silicified emergences of leaves of Selaginelles.) Comptes-Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de l’Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D, Sciences Naturelles 264: 1608–1611. (French) Callose deposits on the leaf margin of Selaginella kraussiana become filled with Si. These sharp structures may help control transpiration. 4 figures.
Waterkeyn, L, Bienfait, A and Peeters, A 1982 Callose et silice épidermiques: Rapports avec la transpiration cuticulaire. (Epidermal callose and silica: Connection with cuticular transpiration.) Cellule 73: 267–287. (French, English summary). Silicification is preceded by callose deposits in several species. Morphology of the epidermal appendages is illustrated for Selaginella, Urtica and Blumenbachia. 5 figures.
Waterkeyn, L and Dupont, C 1982 L’observation des dépôts pariétaux de silice au microscope électronique à balayage. (Scanning electron microscopy of silica deposits isolated from plant cell walls.) Bulletin Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique 115: 156–160. (French, English summary). Development of phytoliths in Selaginella, Urtica and Cannabis is related to presence of callose. Silicified hairs are described. 14 figures (11 photos).
Werner, O 1928 Blatt-Aschenbilder heimischer Wiesengräser als Mittel ihrer Verwandtschafts-und Wertbestimmung. (Leaf-ash picture of native meadow grass as means of its relationship and disposition.) Biologia Generalis 4: 403–446. (German). Spodograms of 47 grasses are described, including phytolith data. 4 plates (53 drawings), 7 figures.
Wilding, LP and Drees, LR 1971 Biogenic opal in Ohio soils. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 35:1004–1010. Total amount and depth-distribution of 50-20 um opal is similar between Alfisols and Mollisols. Tree opal is typically smaller than 20 urn but appears morphologically distinct from grass opal. 5 figures (29 photos).
Wilding, LP and Drees, LR 1972 Biogenic opal in Ohio soils: Errata. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 36: 383–385. Reprint of photographs in more legible form from Wilding and Drees 1971. 3 figures (29 photos).
Wilding, LP and Drees, LR 1973 Scanning electron microscopy of opaque opaline forms isolated from forest soils in Ohio. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 37: 647–650. SEM of opaque opal from soils shows great similarity to opal from deciduous trees. Some shapes are considered diagnostic of forest vegetation. 8 figures (9 photos), 1 table.
Wilding, LP and Drees, LR 1974 Contributions of forest opal and associated crystalline phases to fine silt and clay fractions of soils. Clays and Clay Minerals (Clay Mineral Society, Proceedings of the Conference) 22: 295–306. Opal phytolith fraction of 6 deciduous trees includes crystalline phases, most in the 2–5 um-fraction. Tree opal is more soluble than grass opal. 11 figures (26 photos).
Wilding, LP, Smeck, NE and Drees, LR 1977 Silica in soils: Quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, and opal. In Dixon, JB and Weed, SB, eds, Minerals in Soil Environments. Madison, Wisconsin, Soil Science Society of America: 471-552. Comprehensive treatment of four minerals includes structural properties, quantification, formation and occurrence data. Mineralogic and chemical data on opal phytoliths is presented. 27 figures.
Wilson, SM 1985 Phytolith analysis at Kuk, an early agricultural site in Papua New Guinea. Archaeology in Oceania 20: 90–96. Phytoliths provide a means to study early plant domestication. A distinctive phytolith is in Musa sp (banana). 4 figures, 3 tables.
Witty, JE (ms) 1962 Grass opal in some chestnut and forested soils of Wasco County, Oregon. MS thesis, Oregon State University: 47 p. 11 grass spp and 8 other spp were studied. No distinction among grasses, sedges and rushes was made. Ponderosa pine, Eriogonum (buckwheat) and Balsamorhiza (balsamroot) might have distinctive shapes, but pine also had confusers for grass rods. Chrysothamnus nauseosus (rabbitbrush) and Libocedrus decurrens (incense cedar) had little or no Si. Grass/monocot Si was concluded to be a useful index mineral. 7 figures (6 photos), 4 tables, 1 appendix.
Witty, JE and Knox, EG 1964 Grass opal in some chestnut and forested soils in North Central Oregon. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 28: 685–688. Summary of Witty’s (1962) thesis, without full list of species. Forest soils showed little or no recent history of grass cover, and segments of forest/grass boundary had persisted for several thousand years. 2 figures (4 photos), 1 table.
Yoshida, S, Ohnishi, Y and Kitagishi, K 1962a Histochemistry of silica in rice plant II. Localization of silicon within rice tissues. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 8: 36–41. Location of Si within plant parts is determined. The epidermis and vascular bundles have the greatest amount; Si deposition is thought to be related to transpiration. 11 figures (10 photos).
— 1962b Histochemistry of silica in rice plant III. The presence of cuticle-silica double layer in the epidermal tissue. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 8:1-5. Examination of Si deposition indicates a layer is present beneath the cuticle. The “silica-cuticle double layer” is thought to provide protection against pests and reduce water evaporation. 11 figures (8 photos), 1 table.
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Mulholland, S.C., Lawlor, E.J., Rovner, I. (1992). Annotated Bibliography of Phytolith Systematics. In: Rapp, G., Mulholland, S.C. (eds) Phytolith Systematics. Advances in Archaeological and Museum Science, vol 1. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1155-1_14
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