Abstract
In this chapter, a model of neuroses will be developed that suggests that clinical anxiety is an outcome of an interaction between associative conditioning and individual differences in the functioning of the neuroendocrine system. The model takes as an assumption that there is a synergism between these two factors and that each alone is largely insufficient to produce clinical neuroses. More broadly, this interaction can be conveyed by the following equation:
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Ahlers, S. T., & Richardson, R. (1985). Administration of dexamethasone prior to training blocks ACTH-induced recovery of an extinguished avoidance response. Behavioral Neuroscience, 99, 760–764.
Anderson, D. C., Crowell, C., Koehn, D., & Lupo, J. V. (1976). Different intensities of unsignaled inescapable shock treatments as determinants of non-shock-motivated open field behavior: A resolution of disparate results. Physiology and Behavior, 17, 391–394.
Anderson, L. T., David, R., Bonnet, K., & Dancis, J. (1979). Passive avoidance learning in Lesch-Nyhan disease: Effect of l-desaminio-8-arginine-vasopressin. Life Sciences, 24, 905–910.
Armario, A., Castellanos, J. M., & Balasch, J. (1984). Effect of crowding on emotional reactivity in male rats. Neuroendocrinology, 39, 330–333.
Arnsten, A. F. T., Neville, H. J., Hillyard, S. A., Janowsky, D. S., & Segal, D. S. (1984). Naloxone increases electrophysiological measures of selective information processing in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 4, 2912–2919.
Aston-Jones, G. (1885). The locus coeruleus: Behavioral functions of locus coeruleus derived from celluar attributes. Physiological Psychology, 13, 118–126.
Ballenger, J. C., Post, R. M., Jimerson, D. C., Lake, C. R., & Zuckerman, M. (1984). Neurobiological correlates of depression and anxiety in normal individuals. In R. M. Post & J. C. Ballenger (Eds.), Neurobiology of mood disorders (pp. 481–501). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
Bechara, A., & van der Kooy, D. (1985). Opposite motivational effects of endogenous opioids in brain and periphery. Nature, 314, 533–534.
Beckwith, B. E., & Sandman, C. A. (1978). Behavioral influences of neuropeptides ACTH and MSH: A methodological review. Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews, 2, 311–338.
Beckwith, B. E., & Sandman, C. A. (1982). Central nervous system and peripheral effects of ACTH, MSH, and related peptides. Peptides, 3, 411–420.
Berettini, W. H., Nurnberger, J. I., Jr., Chan, J. S. D., Chrousos, G. P., Gaspar, L., Gold, P. W., Seidah, N. G., Simmons-Ailing, S., Goldin, L. R., Chretien, M., & Gershon, E. S. (1985). Pro-opiomelan-ocortin-related peptides in cerebrospinal fluid: A study of manic-depressive disorder. Psychiatry Research, 16, 287–302.
Bertolini, A., & Gessa, G. L. (1981). Behavioral effects of ACTH and MSH peptides. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 4, 241–251.
Bertoloni, A., Fratta, W., Gessa, G. L., Montaldo, S., & Serra, G. (1984). Penile erection during morphine withdrawal: Possible role of ACTH-MSH peptides. In E. E. Muller & A. R. Genazzi (Eds.), Central and peripheral endorphins: Basic and clinical aspects. New York: Raven Press.
Bertolini, A., Vergoni, A. V., Poggioli, R., & Gessa, G. L. (1986). Morphine and B-endorphin antagonize posture and locomotor disorders induced by the injection of ACTH 1–24 in the rat locus coeruleus. Life Sciences, 38, 373–377.
Bohus, B., de Kloet, E. R., & Veldius, H. D. (1982). Adrenal steroids and behavioral adaptation: Relationship to brain corticoid receptors. In D. Pfaff & D. Ganten (Eds.), Current topics in neuroendocrinology, Vol. 2 (pp. 107–151). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Bolles, R. C. (1970). Species-specific defensive reactions and avoidance learning. Psychological Review, 77, 32–48.
Born, J., Fehm-Wolfsdorf, G., Schiebe, M., Rockstroh, B., Fehm, H. L., & Voigt, K. H. (1984) Dishabituating effects of an ACTH 4–9 analog in a vigilance task. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 21, 513–519.
Breggin, P. R. (1964). The psychophysiology of anxiety. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 139, 558–568.
Britton, D. R., Varela, M., Garcia, A., & Rosenthal, M. (1986). Dexamethasone suppresses pituitary-adrenal but not behavioral effects of centrally administered CRF. Life Sciences, 38, 211–216.
Buckingham, J. C., & Cooper, T. A. (1984). Differences in hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical activity in the rat after acute and prolonged treatment with morphine. Neuroendocrinology, 38, 411–417.
Buijs, R. M. (1983). Vasopressin and oxytocin—Their role in neurotransmission. Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 22, 127–141.
Burbach, J. P. H., Bohus, B., Kovacs, G. L., van Nispen, J. W. Greven, H. M., & de Wied, D. (1983). Oxytocin is a precursor of behaviorally active neuropeptides. European Journal of Pharmacology, 94, 125–131.
Burbach, J. P. H., Kovacs, G. L., & de Wied, D. (1983). A major metabolite of arginine vasopressin in the brain is a highly potent neuropeptide. Science, 221, 1310–1312.
Cannon, W. B. (1915). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton.
Carpenter, W. T., & Gruen, P. H. (1982). Cortisol’s effect on human mental functioning. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 91–101.
Charney, D. S., & Redmond, D. E., Jr., (1983). Neurobiological mechanisms in human anxiety. Neuropharmacology, 22, 1531–1536.
Cohen, M. R., Pickar, D., Extein, I., Gold, M. S., & Sweeney, D. R. (1984). Plasma Cortisol and B- endorphin immunoreactivity in major and nonmajor depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 628–632.
Cohen, M. R., Cohen, R. M., Pickar, D., Sunderland, T., Mueller, E. A., III, & Murphy, D. L. (1984). High-dose Naloxone in depression. Biological Psychiatry, 19, 825–832.
Concannon, J. T., Riccio, D. C., Maloney, R., & McKelvey, J., (1980). ACTH mediation of learned fear: Blockade by naloxone and naltrexone. Physiology and Behavior, 25, 977–979.
Concannon, J. T., Riccio, D. C., & McKelvey, J. (1980). Pavlovian conditioning of fear based upon hormonal mediation of prior aversive experience. Animal Learning and Behavior, 8, 75–80.
Cook, L., Davidson, A., Davis, D. J., & Kelleher, R. T. (1960). Epinephrine, norepinephine, and acetylcholine as stimuli for avoidance behavior. Science, 131, 990–991.
Cronin, G. M., Wiepkema, P. R., & van Ree, J. M. (1986). Endorphins implicated in stereotypies of tethered sows. Experienlia, 42, 198–199.
Datta, P. C., & King, M. G. (1982). Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and behavior. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Review, 6, 297–310.
De Vito, W. J., & Brush, F. R. (1984). Effect of ACTH and vasopressin on extinction: Evidence for opiate mediation. Behavioral Neuroscience, 98, 59–71.
de Wied, D. (1984). CNS effects of oxytocin and related peptides. In P. Paccheri, L. Zichella and P. Falaschi (Eds.), Endorphins, neuroregulalors and behavior in human reproduction (pp. 4–15). Princeton: NJ: Excepta Medica.
de Wied, D., & Jolies, J. (1982). Neuropeptides derived from pro-opiocortin: Behavioral, psychological and neuro-chemical effects. Physiological Reviews, 62, 976–1067.
Dolan, R. J., Calloway, S. P., Fonagy, P., De Souza, F. V. A., & Wakling, A. (1985). Life events, depression and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 429–433.
Ehrensing, R. H., Micheli, G. F., & Baker, R. P. (1982). Vasopressin’s effects on acquisition and extinction of conditioned avoidance response to smoking. Peptides, 3, 527–530.
Eich, J. E. (1980). The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 8, 157–173.
Ettenburg, A., van der Kooy, D., Le Moal, M., Koob, J., & Bloom, F. (1983). Can aversive properties of (peripherally-injected) vasopressin account for its putative role in memory? Behavioural Brain Research, 7, 331–350.
Eysenck, H. J. (1979). The conditioning model of neuroses. Behavior and Brain Sciences, 2, 155–199.
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, M. W. (1985). Personality and individual differences. New York: Plenum Press.
Eysenck, H. J., & Kelley, M.J. (1986). The interaction of neurohormones with Pavlovian A and Pavlovian B conditioning in the causation of neuroses, extinction and incubation of anxiety. In G. Davies (Ed.), Human conditioning. London: Wiley.
Fanslow, M. S. (1985). Odors released by stressed rats produce opioid analgesia in unstressed rats.Behavioral Neuroscience, 99, 589–592.
Foa, E. B., Stekette, G. S., & Ozarow, B.J. (1985). Behavior therapy with obsessive-compulsives: From theory to treatment. In M. Mavissakalian, S. M. Turner, & L. Michaelson (Eds.), Obsessive-compulsive disorder. New York: Plenum Press.
Fehm, H. L., Klien, E., Holl, R., & Voigt, K. H. (1984). Evidence for extra-pituitary mechanisms mediating the morning peak of plasma Cortisol in man. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 58, 410–414.
Fehm, H. L., Holl, R., Steiner, K., Klein, E., & Voigt, K. H. (1984). Evidence for ACTH-unrelated mechanisms in the regulation of Cortisol secretion in man. Klinische Wochenschrift, 62, 19–24.
Frederiksen, S. O., d’Elia, G., & Bengtsson, B.-O. (1985). ACTH 4–9 analogue (ORG 2766) in depressed and elderly patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandanavica, 72, 349–357.
Fredrikson, M., Sundin, O., & Frankenhaeuser, M. (1985). Cortisol excretion during defensive reaction in humans. Psychosomatic Medicine, 47, 313–317.
Gaillard, A. W. K. (1981). ACTH analogs and human performance. In J. L. Martinez Jr., R. A. Jensen, R. B. Messing, H. Righter, & J. L. McGuagh (Eds.), Endogenous peptides and learning and memory processes (pp. 181–196). New York: Academic Press.
Gjerris, A., Hammer, M., Vendsborg, P., Christensen, N.J., & Rafaelsen, O.J. (1985). Cerebrospinal fluid vasopressin—Changes in depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 696–701.
Gold, P. W., Ballenger, J. C., Robertson, G. L., Weingartner, H., Rubinow, D. R., Hoban, M. C., Goodwin, F. K., & Post, R. N. (1984). Vasopressin in affective illness: direct measurement, clinical trials and response to hypertonic saline. In R. M. Post & J. C. Ballenger (Eds.), Neurobiology of mood disorders (pp. 323–339). London: Williams & Wilkins.
Gold, P. W., Chrousos, G., Kellner, C., Post, R., Roy, A., Augerinos, P., Schulte, H., Oldfield, E., & Loriaux, D. L. (1984). Psychiatric and clinical studies of corticotropin releasing factor. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 619–627.
Gold, P. W., Kaye, W., Robertson, G. L., & Ebert, M. (1984). Abnormal regulation of argine vasopressin plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with anorexia nervosa. New England Journal of Medicine, 308, 1117–1123.
Gray, P. (1975). Effect of adrenocorticotropic hormone on conditioned avoidance in rats interpreted as state-dependent learning. Journal of Comparative and physiological Psychology, 88, 281–284.
Greenberg, D., & Belmaker, R. H. (1985). DDAVP as a possible method to enhance positive benefit of behaviour therapy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 713–715.
Grossen, N. E., & Kelley, M.J. (1972). Species-specific behavior and acquisition of avoidance behavior in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 81, 306–311.
Hagen, J. J., & Bohus, B. (1984). Vasopressin prolongs bradycardiac response during orientation. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 41, 77–83.
Haroutunian, V., & Riccio, D. C. (1977). The effect of arousal conditions during reinstatement treatment upon learned fear in young rats. Developmental Psychobiology, 10, 25–32.
Haroutunian, V., & Riccio, D. C. (1979). Drug-induced “arousal” and the effectiveness of CS exposure in the reinstatement of memory. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 26, 115–120.
Hayashi, T., Fischman, A. J., Kaskin, A. A., & Coy, D. H. (1984). Some analogs of Try-MIF-1 affect passive avoidance behavior but not motor activity in rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 21, 809–812.
Henry, J. L. (1982). Circulating opioids: possible physiological roles in central nervous system. Neuroscience and Biohehavioral Reviews, 6, 229–245.
Hernandez, L. L. (1985). Vasopressin and ACTH analogs affect orienting but not activity in rabbits. Peptides, 2, 97–101.
Heuman, K. F. (Ed.). (1985). Proceedings of conference on corticotropin-releasing factor. Federal Proceedings, 44, 145–263.
Iversen, L. L. (1984). Amino acids and peptides: fast and slow chemicals in the nervous system? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 221, 245–260.
Izquierdo, I., Perry, M. L., Dias, R. D., Souza, D. O., Elisabetsky, E., Carrasco, M. A., Orsingher, O. A., & Netto, C. A. (1981). Endogenous opioids, memory modulation, and state dependency. In J. L. Martinez Jr., R. A. Jensen, R. B. Messing, H. Rigter, & J. L. McGaugh (Eds.), Endogenous peptides and learning and memory processes (pp. 269–304). New York: Academic Press.
Jacquet, Y. (1978). Opiate effects after adrenocorticotropin or B-endorphin injection in the periaqueductal grey matter of rats. Science, 201, 1032–1034.
Jarbe, T. U. C., Svensson, R., & Laaksonen, T., (1983). Conditioning of a discriminative drug stimulus: overshadowing and blocking procedures. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 24, 325–330.
Jenkins, J. S., Ang, V. T. Y., Hawthorn, J., Rossor, M. N., & Iversen, L. (1984). Vasopressin, oxytocin and neurophysins in the human brain and spinal cord. Brain Research, 291, 111–117.
Jennings, J. R., Nebes, R. D., & Reynolds, C. F., III. (1986). Vasopressin peptide (DDAVP) may narrow the focus of attention in normal elderly. Psychiatry Research, 17, 31–39.
Kalin, N. E. (1986). ACTH in plasma and CSF in the Rhesus monkey. Biological Psychiatry, 21, 124–140.
Kastin, A. J., Olson, R. D., Sandman, C. A., & Coy, D. H. (1981). Multiple independent actions of neuropeptides on behavior. In J. L. Martinez Jr., R. A. Jensen, R. B. Messing, H. Rigter, & J. L. McGaugh (Eds.), Endogenous Peptides and Learning and Memory Processes (pp. 563–578). New York: Academic Press.
Kasprow, W. J., Catterson, D., Schachtman, T. R., & Miller, R. R. (1984). Attenuation of latent inhibition by post-acquisition reminder. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36B, 53–63.
Kelley, M.J. (1982). Event-reinforcer interactions in conditioning. Unpublished D. Phil, thesis at The University of Sussex.
Kelley, M.J. (1985a). Epinephrine-cue contiguity is required for the modulation of CS excitatory strength. Physiological Psychology, 13, 217–218.
Kelley, M J. (1985b). Species-typical taxic behavior and event-reinforcer reactions. Learning and Motivation, 16, 301–314.
Kelley, M.J. (1986a). Selective attention and stimulus-reinforcer interactions in the pigeon. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38B, 97–110.
Kelley, M.J., & Lightman, S. L. (1986). The conditioned release of oxytocin in female rats. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Kelley, M. J:, Lightman, S. L., Murphy, D., & O’Connor, K. (1986). Personality, sustained attention and individual differences in nicotine-induced levels of vasopressin. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Kennett, D. J., Devlin, M. C., & Ferrier, B. M. (1982). Influence of oxytocin on memory processes: validation by a control study. Life Sciences, 31, 273–275.
Koob, G. F., LeMoal, M., & Bloom, F. E. (1984). The role of endorphins in neurobiology, behavior, and psychiatric disorders. In C. B. Nemeroff & A.J. Dunn (Eds.), Peptides, hormones and behavior. New York: Spectrum.
Koob, G. F., Dantzer, R., Rodriguez, F., Bloom, F. E., & Le Moal, M. (1985). Osmotic stress mimics effects of vasopressin on learned behavior. Nature, 315, 750–752.
Koob, G. F., LeBrun, C., Martinez, Jr., J. L., Bluthe, R. M., Dantzer, R., Bloom, F. E., & Le Moal, M. (1985). Use of arginine vasopressin antagonists in eliciting the mechanism of action for the behavioral effects of arginine vasopressin. In R. W. Schrier (Eds.), Vasopressin (pp. 195–201). New York: Raven Press.
Kovacs, G. L., & Telegdy, G. (1985). Role of oxytocin in memory, amnesia and reinforcement. In J. A. Amico & A. G. Robinson (Eds.), Oxytocin, clinical and laboratory studies (pp. 359–371). New York: Exerpta Medica.
Krejci, I., Kupkova, B., Dlaba C.A., & Kasafirek, E. (1983). On the effects of neurohypophyseal hormones, analogs and fragments on the extinction of avoidance responding. In E. Endroczi, L. Angelucci, U. Scapagnini, & de Wied, D. (Eds.), International conference on integrative neurohormonal mechanisms: Neuropeptides and psychosomatic processes. Budapest: Akademiae Kiado.
Krieger, D. T. (1983). Brain peptides: What, where, and why? Science, 222, 975–985.
Laczi, F., Gaffori, O., de Kloet, E. R., & de Wied, D. (1983a). Differential responses in immunoreactive arginine-vasopressin content of microdissected brain regions during passive avoidance behavior. Brain Research, 260, 342–346.
Laczi, F., Gaffori, O., de Kloet, E. R., & de Wied, D. (1983b). Arginine-vasopressin content of hippocampus and amygdala during passive avoidance behavior in rats. Brain Research, 280, 309–315.
Laczi, F., Gaffori, O., Fekete, M., de Kloet, E. R., & de Wied, D. (1984). Levels of arginine-vasopressin in cerebrospinal fluid during passive avoidance behavior in rats. Life Sciences, 34, 2385–2391.
Lader, M. (1980). Psychophysiology studies in anxiety. In G. D. Burrows & B. Davies (Eds.), Handbook of studies on anxiety (pp. 59–88). North Holland: Elsevier.
LaHoste, G. J., Olson, G. A., Kaskin, A. J., & Olson, R. D. (1980). Behavioral effects of melanocyte stimulating hormone. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 4, 9–16.
Lester, L. S., & Fanslow, M. S. (1985). Exposure to a cat produces opioid analgesia in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 99, 756–759.
Mackintosh, N.J. (1983). Conditioning and associative learning. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Macleod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15–20.
Markey, K. A., & Sze, P. Y. (1984). Influence of ACTH in the locus coeruleus of the mouse brain. Neuroendocrinology, 38, 269–275.
McGaugh, J. L. (1983). Hormonal influence on memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 34, 297–323.
Mens, W. B. J., Bouman, H. J., Bakker, E. A. D., & van Wimersma Greidanus, T. B. (1980). Differential effects of various stimuli on AVP levels in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. European Journal of Pharmacology, 68, 89–92.
Meyer, M. E., & Bohus, B. (1983). The modulation of the dorsal immobility response in the adult Wister rat: The opposite effect of ACTH4–10 and [D-Phe7]ACTH4–10. Behavior and Neural Biology, 38, 194–204.
Miller, L. H., Fisher, S. C., Groves, G. A., Rudrauff, M. E., & Kaskin, A. (1977). MSH/ACTH influences on the CAR in human subjects: A negative finding. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 7, 417 – 419.
Morley, S. (1977). The incubation of avoidance behavior: strain differences in susceptibility. Behavior Research and Therapy, 15, 365–367.
Nesse, R. H., Curtis, G. C., Thyer, B. A., McCann, D. S., Huber-Smith, M. J., & Knoff, R. F. (1985). Endocrine and cardiovascular responses during phobic anxiety. Psychosomatic Medicine, 47, 320–332.
O’Brien, C. P., Ehrman, R. N., & Ternes, J. W. (1986). Classical conditioning in human opioid tolerance. In S. R. Goldberg & I. P. Stolerman (Eds.), Behavioral analysis of drug dependence (pp. 329–356). New York: Academic Press.
O’Donohue, T. L., Handelmann, G. E., Miller, R. L., & Jacobowitz, D. M. (1982). N-acetylation regulates the behavioral activity of alpha-melanotropin in a multineurotransmitter neuron. Science, 215, 1125–1127.
Nicolaides, E. D., Tinney, F. J., Kaltenbronn, J. S., Repine, D. A., DeJohn, D. A., Lunney, E. A., Roark, W. H., Marriott, J. G., Davis, R. E., & Voigtman, R. E. (1986). Modified di- and tripepetides of the c-terminal portion of oxytocin and vasopressin as possible cognition activation agents. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 29, 959–971.
Æhman, A., Dimberg, U., & Ost, L. (1985). Animal and social phobias: Biological constraints on learned fear responses. In S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoretical issues in behavior therapy (pp. 123–175). New York: Academic Press.
Ælson, G. A., Olson, R. D., & Kaskin, A.J. (1985). Endogenous opiates: 1984. Peptides, 6, 769–791.
Pi-Sunyer, X., Kissileff, H. R., Thornton, J., & Smith, G. P. (1982). C-terminal octapeptide of chole- cystokinin decreases food intake in obese men. Physiology and Behavior, 29, 627–630.
Pigache, R. M., & Righter, H. (1981). The effects of peptides related to ACTH on mood and vigilancein man. In Tj. B. van Wimersma Griedanus & L. H. Rees (Eds.), ACTH and LPH in health and disease (pp. 191–207). Basel: S. Karger.
Post, R. M., Pickar, D., Ballenger, J. C., Naber, D., & Rubinow, D. R. (1984). Endogenous opiates in cerebrospinal fluid: Relationship to mood and anxiety. In R. M. Post & J. C. Ballenger (Eds.), Neurobiology of mood disorders (pp. 356–368). London: Williams & Wilkens.
Raid-Fahmy, D., Read, G. F., Walker, R. F., & Griffiths, K. (1987). Steroids in saliva for assessing endocrine function. Endocrine Reviews, 3, 367–396.
Raskin, M. A., Weitzman, R. E., Orenstein, H., Fisher, D. A., & Courtney, N. (1978). Is antidiuretic hormone elevated in psychosis? A pilot study. Biological Psychiatry, 13, 385–391.
Redmond, D. E., Jr. (1981). Clonidine and the primate locus coeruleus: Evidence suggesting anxiolytic and anti-withdrawal effects. In H. Lai & S. Fielding (Eds.), Psychopharmacology of Clonidine. New York: Alan Liss.
Redmond, D.E. Jr., & Huang, Y. H. (1979). New evidence for a locus coeruleus-norepinephrine connection with anxiety. Life Sciences, 25, 2149–2162.
Riccio, D. C., & Concannon, J. T. (1981). ACTH and the reminder phenomena. In J. L. Martinez, Jr., R. A.Jensen, & R. B. Messing (Eds.), Endogenous peptides and learning and memory processes. New York: Academic Press.
Righter, H. (1982). Vasopressin and memory: The influence of prior experience with the training situation. Behavioral Neurobiology, 34, 337–351.
Ritzman, R. F., Colbern, D. L., Zimmerman, E. G., & Krivoy, W. (1984). Neurohypophyseal hormones in tolerance and physical dependence. Pharmacology and Therapy, 23, 281–312.
Robbins, T. W., Everitt, B. J., & Cole, B. J. (1985). Functional hypotheses of the coeruleocortical noradrenergic projection: A review of recent experimentation and theory. Physiological Psychology, 13, 127–150.
Roy-Byrne, P. P., Uhde, T. W., Post, R. M., Gallucci, W., Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (1986). The corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test in patients with panic disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 896–899.
Sapolsky, R. M., Krey, L. C., & McEwen, B. S. (1984). Stress down-regulates corticocosterone receptors in a site-specific manner in the brain. Endocrinology, 114, 287–292.
Sartory, G. (1983). The orienting response and psychopathology: Anxiety and phobias. In D. Siddle (Ed.), Orienting and habituation: Perspectives in human research (pp. 449–474). New York: Wiley.
Schacter, S., & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 69, 379–399.
Shillabeer, G., & Davison, J. S. (1984). The Cholecystokinin antagonist, proglumide, increases food intake in the rat. Regulatory Peptides, 8, 171–176.
Smock, T., & Fields, H. L. (1981). AGTH 1–24 blocks opiate-induced analgesia in the rat. Brain Research, 212, 202–206.
Strupp, B. J., & Levitsky, D. A. (1985). A mnemonic role for vasopressin: The evidence for and against. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 9, 399–411.
Strupp, B. J., & Weingartner, H. (1984). Vasopressin and cognition. Drug Development Research, 4, 501 – 516.
Strupp, B., Weingartner, H., Goodwin, F. K., & Gold, P. W. (1984). Neurohypophseal hormones and cognition. Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 23, 179–191.
Terman, G. W., Shavit, Y., Lewis, J. W., Cannon, J. T., & Liebeskind, J. C. (1984). Intrinsic mechanisms of pain inhibition: Activation by stress. Science, 226, 1270–1277.
Timsit-Berthier, M., Mantanus, H., Devos, J. E., & Spiegel, R. (1982). Action of lysine-vasopressin on human electroencephalographic activity. Neuropsychobiology, 8, 248–258.
Tinus, T. P., Beckwith, B. E., Wagner, N., Tinus, K. A., and Traynor, M. M. (1986). Differential actions of arginine vasopressin and alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone on reactivation of memory after hypotherma-induced amnesia. Physiological Psychology, 15–22.
Tomkins, E. H., Sturgis, C. C., & Wearn, J. T. (1919). Studies in epinephrine. II. Archives of Internal Medicine, 24, 247–268.
Vale, W., & Greer, M. (Eds.). (1985). Proceedings of conference on corticotropin-releasing factor. Federation Proceedings, 44, 145–263.
Valentino, R. J., Foote, S. L., & Aston-Jones, G. (1983). CRF activates noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus. Brain Research, 363–369.
Vanderhaeghen, J.-J., & Crawley, J. N. (Eds.). (1985). Neuronal cholecystokinin: Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 448. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences,
van der Velde, C. D. (1983). Rapid clinical effectiveness of MIF-1 in the treatment of major depressive illness. Peptides, 4, 297–300.
van Heuven-Nolsen, D., De Kloet, E. R., & Versteeg, D. H. G. (1984). Oxytocin affects utilization of noradrenaline in distinct limbic-forebrain regions of the rat brain. Neuropharmacology, 23, 1373–1377.
Van Wimersma Greidanus, Tj B., Bohus, B., Kovacs, G. L., Versteeg, D. H. G., Burbach, J. P. H., & de Wied, D. (1983). Sites of behavioral and neurochemical action of ACTH-like peptides and neurohypophyseal hormones. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 7, 453–463.
Veith, J. L., Sandman, C. A., George, J. M., & Kendall, J. W. (1985). The relationship of endogenous ACTH levels to visual-attentional functioning in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 10, 33–48.
Veldhuis, H. D., & de Wied, D. (1984). Differential behavioral actions of corticotropin-releasing factor. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 21, 707–714.
Verbalis, J. G., McCann, M. J., McHale, C. M., & Strieker, E. M. (1986). Oxytocin secretion in response to cholecystocinin and food: Differentiation of nausea from satiety. Science, 232, 1417–1419.
von Kronning, L., Almay, B. G. L., Johansson, F., & Terenius, L. (1978). Pain perception and endorphin levels in cerebrospinal fluid. Pain, 5, 359.
Watkins, L. R., Kinscheck, I. B., & Mayer, D.J. (1984). Potentiation of opiate analgesia and apparent reversal of morphine tolerance by proglumide. Science, 224, 395–396.
Watts, F. N., & Sharrock, R. (1985). Description and measurement of concentration problems in depressed patients. Psychological Medicine, 15, 317–326.
Williams, J. L., Drugan, R. C., & Maier, S. P. (1984). Exposure to uncontrollable stress alters withdrawal from morphine. Behavioral Neuroscience, 98, 836–846.
Williams, T. D., Carter, D. A., & Lightman, S. L. (1985). Sexual dimorphism in the posterior pituitary response to stress in the rat. Endocrinology, 116, 738–741.
Wolkowitz, O. M., Tinklenberg, J. R., & Weingartner, H. (1985). A pharmacological perspective of cognitive functions. Neuropsychobiology, 14, 133–156.
Wood, S. P., Tickle, I. J., Treharne, A. M., Pitts, J. E., Mascarenhas, Y., Li, J. Y., Husain, J., Cooper, S., Bludell, T. L., Hruby, V.J., Buku, A., Fischman, A.J., & Wyssbrod, H. R. (1986). Crystal structure analysis of deamino-oxytocin: Conformational flexibility and receptor binding. Science, 232, 633–636.
Zerbe, R. L. (1985). Genetic factors in normal and abnormal regulation of vasopressin secretion. In R. W. Schrier (Ed.), Vasopressin (pp. 213–220). New York: Raven Press.
Zis, A. P., Haskett, R. F., Albala, A., Carroll, B. J., & Lohr, N. E. (1985). Opioid regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 383–386.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1987 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kelley, M.J. (1987). Hormones and Clinical Anxiety An Imbalanced Neuromodulation of Attention. In: Eysenck, H.J., Martin, I. (eds) Theoretical Foundations of Behavior Therapy. Perspectives on Individual Differences. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0827-8_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0827-8_19
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0829-2
Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0827-8
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive