Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Traumatic Brain Injury

Outcome and Predictors of Outcome

  • Chapter
Handbook of Head Trauma

Part of the book series: Critical Issues in Neuropsychology ((CINP))

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects over 400,000 people each year in the United States (Kalsbeck, McLaurin et al., 1980). Mortality following severe TBI varies between 30% and 60% (Bartkowski & Lovely, 1986). One multicenter study of TBI in an adult population identified 51% mortality with 36% having good recovery or moderate disability and 13% having severe disability or being in a vegetative state (Jennett, Teasdale et al., 1987). In children and adolescents, there was a 33% mortality, 51% of the patients had a good outcome or moderate disability and 16% were severely disabled or were in a vegetative state (Berger, Pitts, & Lovely, 1985). The Medical College of Virginia, demonstrating the value of intensive management, found 30% mortality with 60% good outcome/moderate disability, 8% severe disability, and 2% persistent vegetative state (Becker, Miller et al., 1977). A study of pediatric head injury from the same institution reported 24% mortality, 68% good outcome/moderate disability, 6% severe disability, and 2% persistent vegetative state (Ward & Alberico, 1987). Thus, although good outcome or moderate disability varies widely depending on age and level of care, the incidence of severe disability/vegetative state is relatively constant despite age or type of care. Approximately 40,000 patients will have poor outcome annually with 32,000 being severely disabled and 8000 remaining in a vegetative state.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adams, J. H., Graham, D. I., et al. (1982). Diffuse axonal injury due to non-missile head injury in humans: An analysis of 45 cases. Annals of Neurology, 12, 557–563.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, D., Bundlie, S., & Rockswold, G. (1984). Multimodality evoked potentials in closed head trauma. Archives of Neurology, 41, 369–379.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartkowski, H. M., & Lovely, M. P (1986). Prognosis in coma and the persistent vegetative state. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 1, 1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, D. P., Miller, J. D., et al. (1977). The outcome from severe head injury with early diagnosis and intensive management. Journal of Neurosurgery, 47, 491–502.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, H. (1931). Uber das elektrnkephalogrqmar des menschen III, Mitteilung. Archiv fuer Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 94, 16–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, M. S., Pitts, L. H., & Lovely, M. (1985). Outcome from severe head injury in children and adolescents. Journal of Neurosurgery, 62, 194–199.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowers, S. A., & Marshall, L. F. (1980). Outcome in 200 consecutive cases of severe head injury treated in San Diego County: A prospective analysis. Neurosurgery, 6, 237–242.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bricolo, A. (1976). Electroencephalography in neurotraumatology. Clinical Electroencephalography, 7,184–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bricolo, A., Turazzi, S., Faccioli, F., Odorizzi, F., Sciarretta, G., & Erculiani, P (1978). Clinical application of compressed spectral array in long term EEG monitoring of comatose patients. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 45, 211–25.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bruce, D. A., et al. (1979). Pathophysiology, treatment and outcome following severe head injury in children. Child’s Brain, 5, 174–191.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cant, B. R., & Shaw, N. A. (1984). Monitoring by compressed special array in prolonged coma. Neurology, 34,35–39.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chatrian, G. E., White, L. E., & Daly, D. (1963). Electroencephalographic patterns resembling those of sleep in certain comatose states after head injury. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 15, 272–280.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, S. C., Ward, J. D., & Becker, D. P (1983). Chart for outcome prediction in severe head injury. Journal of Neurosurgery, 59, 294–297.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Facco, E., et al. (1985). Is the auditory brain-stem response (ABR) effective in the assessment of post-traumatic coma? Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 62, 332–337.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, L. M., Furgiuele, T. L., & Etheridge, J. E. (1985). Prediction of chronic vegetative state in children using evoked potentials. Neurology, 35, 931–934.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gennarelli, T. A., et al. (1982). Influence of the type of intracranial lesion on outcome from severe head injury. Journal of Neurosurgery, 56, 26–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gennarelli, T. A., Thibault, L. E., Adams, J. H., et al. (1982). Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Annals of Neurology, 12,564–574.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs, F. A., Davis, H., & Lennox, W. G. (1935). The electroencephalogram in epilepsy and in conditions of impaired consciousness. Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 34, 1133–1148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldie, W., Chiappa, K., Young, R., & Brooks, E. (1981). Brain-stem auditory and short-latency somatosensory evoked responses in brain death. Neurology, 31, 248–256.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R. P., & Ducker, T. B. (1982). Evoked potentials in the clinical neurosciences. Journal of Neurosurgery, 56, 1–18.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R., et al. (1977). Evaluation of brain function in severe human head trauma with multimodality evoked potentials, part 1: Evoked brain-injury potentials, methods, & analysis. Journal of Neurosurgery, 47, 150–162.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R., et al. (1977). Evaluation of brain function in severe human head trauma with multimodality evoked potentials, part 2: Localization of brain dysfunction and correlations with post-traumatic neurological conditions. Journal of Neurosurgery, 47, 163–177.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R. P, Newlon, P. G., et al. (1981). Prognostic implications of early multimodality evoked potentials in severely head-injured patients. Journal of Neurosurgery, 55, 227–236.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, N. K., et al. (1986). Visual evoked response in head trauma: Pattern-shift stimulus. Neurology, 36, 578–581.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, K., Cope, N., & Rappaport, M. (1985). Glasgow Outcome Scale and Disability Rating Scale: Comparative usefulness in following recovery in traumatic head injury. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 66, 35–37.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Han, J. S., Kaufman, B., et al. (1984). Head trauma evaluated by magnetic resonance and computed tomography: A comparison. Radiology, 150, 71–77.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hume, A. L., & Cant, B. R. (1981). Central somatosensory condition after head injury. Annals of Neurology, 10, 411–419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hume, A. L., Cant, M. P, & Shaw, M. A. (1979). Central somatosensory conduction time in comatose patients. Annals of Neurology, 5, 379–384.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennett, W. B., & Plum, F (1972). The persistent vegetative state: A syndrome in search of a name. Lancet, 1,734–737.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennett, B., & Bond, M. (1975). Assessment of outcome after severe brain damage. A practical scale. Lancet, 1, 480–484.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennett, B., & Teasdale, G. (1977). Aspects of coma after severe head injury. Lancet, 1, 878–881.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennett, B., Teasdale, G., Braakman, R., et al. (1976). Predicting outcome in individual patients after severe head injury. Lancet, 1, 1031–1034.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennett, B., Teasdale, G., Braakman, R., et al. (1979). Prognosis of patients with severe head injury. Neurosurgery, 4, 283–289.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennett, B., Teasdale, G., et al. (1987). Prognosis of patients with severe head injury. Neurosurgery, 40, 291–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaga, K., Nagai, T., & Takamori, A. (1985). Auditory short, middle and long latency responses in acutely comatose patients. Laryngoscope, 95, 321–325.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalsbeck, W. D., McLaurin, R. I., et al. (1980). The national head and spinal cord injury survey: Major findings. Journal of Neurosurgery, 53(Suppl.), 19–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karnaze, D., et al (1982). Localizing and prognostic value of auditory evoked responses in coma after closed head injury. Neurology, 32, 299–302.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karnaze, D., Winer, I., & Marshall, L. (1985). Auditory evoked potentials in coma after closed head injury: A clinical-neurophysiological coma scale for predicting outcome. Neurology, 35, 1122–11265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kindsay, K. W., et al. (1981). Evoked potentials in severe head injury—Analysis and relation to outcome. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 44, 796–802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lange-Cossach, W., Riebel, W., & Gramme, T. (1981). Possibilities and limitation of rehabilitation after traumatic apallic syndrome in children and adolescents. Neuropediatrics, 12, 338–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levati, A., et al. (1982). Prognosis of severe head injuries. Journal of Neurosurgery, 57, 779–783.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, D. E., Knill-Jones, R. P., & Plum, F. (1978). The vegetative state and its prognosis following non-traumatic coma. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 315, 293–306.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lokkeberg, A. R., & Grime, R. M. (1984). Assessing the influence of non-treatment variables in a study of outcome from severe head injury. Journal of Neurosurgery, 61, 254–262.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lutschg, J., et al (1983). Brain-stem auditory evoked potentials and early somatosensory evoked potentials in neurointensively treated comatose children. American Journal of Disabled Children, 137, 421–426.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, W. J., D’Souza, B. J., & Freeman, J. M. (1981). Surprising good outcome of prolonged coma after severe head injury. Annals of Neurology, 10, 286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mizrani, E. M., & Kellaway, P. (1984). Censoral concussion in children: Assessment of injury by electroencephalography. Pediatrics, 73, 419–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Narayan, R., Greenberg, R., et al. (1981). Improved confidence of outcome prediction in severe head injury: A comparative analysis of the clinical examination, multimodality evoked potentials, CT scanning and intracranial pressure. Journal of Neurosurgery, 54, 751–762.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Newlon, P. G., & Greenberg, R. P. (1984). Evoked potentials in severe head injury. The Journal of Trauma, 24, 61–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Newlon, P. G., Greenberg, R. P., et al. (1982). The dynamics of neuronal dysfunction and recovery following severe head injury assessed with serial multimodality evoked potentials. Journal of Neurosurgery, 57, 168–177.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papanicolaou, A., et al. (1984). Evoked potential correlates of post-trauma amnesia after closed head injury. Neurosurgery, 14, 676–678.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papanicolaou, A., Loving, D., Eisenbert, H., Raz, N., & Contreras, F. (1986). Auditory brain stem evoked responses in comatose head-injured patients. Neurosurgery, 18, 173–175.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pfurtscheller, G., et al. (1985). Clinical relevance of long-latency SEPs and VEPs during coma and emergence from coma. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 62, 88–98.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plum, F., & Posner, J. B.(1980). The diagnosis of stupor and coma (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Davis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, C., Wogensen, K., & Starr, A. (1984). Auditory brain-stem and middle and long-latency evoked potentials and coma. Archives of Neurology, 41, 835–838.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblum, W. I., et al (1981). Midbrain lesions: Frequent and significant prognostic feature in closed head injury. Neurosurgery, 9, 613–620.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rumpl, E., Prugger, M., et al. (1983). Central somatosensory conduction time and short latency somatosensory evoked potentials in post-traumatic coma. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 56, 583–596.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scherg, M., Cramon, D., & Elton, M. (1984). Brain-stem auditory evoked potentials in post-comatose patients after severe closed head trauma. Journal of Neurology, 231, 1–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, N. A., & Cant, B. R. (1984). The effect of experimental concussion on somatosensory evoked potentials. Australian Journal of Experimental Biology & Medical Science, 62, 361–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stablein, D. N., et al. (1980). Statistical methods for determining prognosis in severe head injury. Neurosurgery, 6, 243–248.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, J. L., Ghaly, R. F., & Hughes, J. R. (1988). Electroencephalography in acute head injury. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 5, 125–133.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, J. L., Ghaly, R. F., & Hughes, J. R. (1988). Evoked potentials in head injury and states of increased intracranial pressure. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 5, 135–160.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Synek, V. M. (1988). Prognostically important EEG coma patterns in diffuse anoxic and traumatic encephalopathies in adults. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 5, 161–174.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teasdale, G., & Jennett, B. (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet, 2, 81–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walser, H., Emre, M., & Janzer, R. (1986). Somatosensory evoked potentials in comatose patients: Correlation with outcome and neuropathological findings. Journal of Neurology, 233, 34–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, J. D., & Alberico, A. M. (1987). Pediatric head injury. Brain Injury, 1, 21–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D., & Denny-Brown, D. (1941). Cerebral electrical changes in experimental concussion. Brain, 64, 223–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cumberland Hospital, New Kent, Virginia, 23124, USA

    Donald A. Taylor

Authors
  1. Donald A. Taylor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Memphis State University, Memphis, Tennessee, USA

    Charles J. Long  & Leslie K. Ross  & 

  2. University of Tennessee Center for the Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee, USA

    Charles J. Long  & Leslie K. Ross  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1992 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Taylor, D.A. (1992). Traumatic Brain Injury. In: Long, C.J., Ross, L.K. (eds) Handbook of Head Trauma. Critical Issues in Neuropsychology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0706-6_17

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0706-6_17

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0708-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0706-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation