Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Etiologies of Schizophrenia

Biological

  • Chapter
Book cover Schizophrenia

Part of the book series: Critical Issues in Psychiatry ((CIPS))

  • 185 Accesses

Abstract

A medical model seems inescapable when considering the biological factors that may contribute to schizophrenia. The question is which medical model is most appropriate. An interactive developmental model provides, we believe, a broad conception of disease that is most adequate for integrating the available facts relevant to the etiologies of schizophrenia. However, genetic and biochemical hypotheses have often been presented within a narrower biomedical model of illness. Such a model has stated or implied that deviations in brain physiology are sufficient to account for schizophrenia without the need to implicate environmental factors. In such a view, psychology and sociology are recognized as relevant to the expression of illness, of course, but etiology is viewed solely in biomedical terms. The presumed brain dysfunction could be conceptualized as structural or functional. In either case, etiology might originate within the brain (e.g., in abnormal limbic system anatomy or function), or the brain could be viewed as the organ of response (e.g., to an abnormal metabolite formed in the gut or liver).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Recommended Reading

  • Freedman, D. X. Biology of the major psychoses: A comparative analysis. New York: Raven Press, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kety, S. S. Biochemical theories of schizophrenia. A two-part critical review of current theories and of the evidence used to support them. Science, 1959, 129: 1528–1532, 1590–1596.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kety, S.S. Current biochemical approaches to schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine, 1967, 276: 325–331.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1976, 2(1).

    Google Scholar 

  • Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3(1).

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, S. H., Banerjee, S. P., Yamamura, H. I., and Greenberg, D. Drugs, neurotransmitters, and schizophrenia. Science, 1974, 184: 1243–1253.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spohn, H. E., and Patterson, T. Recent studies of psychophysiology in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1979, 5(4) 581–611.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J. R. An anatomy of schizophrenia? Archives of General Psychiatry, 1973, 29: 177–189.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt, R. J., Termini, B. A., and Davis, J. Biochemical and sleep studies of schizophrenia: A review of the literature—1960–1970. Part 1. Biochemical studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, Fall 1971, 1 (Experimental issue 4): 10–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

References

  1. Freud, S. A project for a scientific psychology. In: The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Strachey, J. (ed.). London: Hogarth Press, 1966, 1: 283–398.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Searles, H. F. Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and Related Subjects. New York: International Universities Press, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Wynne, L. C., Singer, M. T., Bartko, J. J., and Toohey, M. L. Schizophrenics and their families: Recent research on parental communication. In: Developments in psychiatric research, Tanner, J. M. (ed.). London: Hodden & Stoughton, 1977, 254–286.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Bleuler, E. Dementia praecox. New York: International Universities Press, 1950.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Freud, S. On narcissism: An introduction, 1914. In: The standard edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud, Strachey, J., and Freud, A. (eds.). London: Hogarth Press, 1957, 14: 67–102.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Weinberger, D. R., Bigelow, L. B., Kleinman, J. E., Klein, S. T., Rosenblatt, J. E., and Wyatt, R. J. Cerebral ventricular enlargement in chronic schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1980, 37: 11–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Kleinman, J. E., Bridge, P., Kavorem, F., Speciale, S., Staub, R., Lalcman, S., Gillin, J. C, and Wyatt, R. J. Catecholamines and metabolism in the brain of psychotics and normals: Postmortem studies. In: Catecholamines: Basic and clinical frontiers, Usdin, E., Kopin, I. J. and Barchas, J. D. (eds.). New York: Pergamon Press, 1979, 1845–1847.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Wyatt, R. J., Lermini, B. A., and Davis, J. Biochemical and sleep studies of schizophrenia: A review of the literature, 1960–1970: Part 1. Biochemical studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1971, 4, 10–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Selye, H. Stress and the general adaptation syndrome. British Medical Journal, 1950, 2: 1383–1392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Arlow, J. A., and Brenner, C. Psychoanalytic Concepts and the Structural Theory. New York: International Universities Press, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Matthysse, S. W., and Kidd, K. K. Estimating the genetic contribution to schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1976, 133: 185–191.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Rieder, R. O., and Gershon, E. S. Genetic strategies in biological psychiatry. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1978, 35: 866–873.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Gottesman, I.I., and Shields, J. A critical review of recent adoption, twin, and family studies of schizophrenia: Behavioral genetics perspectives. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1976, 2: 360–401.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Kety, S. S., Rosenthal D., Wender, P. H., and Schulsinger, F. The types and prevalence of mental illness in the biological and adoptive families of adopted schizophrenics. In: The Transmission of Schizophrenia, Rosenthal, D., and Kety, S. S. (eds.). Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1968, 345–362.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Wynne, L. C, Singer, M. T., and Toohey, M. L. Communication of the adoptive parents of schizophrenics. In: Schizophrenia 75: Psychotherapy, family studies, research, Jorstad, J., and Ugelstad, E. (eds.). Oslo: Universitetsfor-laget, 1976, 413–452.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Janowsky, D. S. and Davis, J. M. Dopamine, psychomotor stimulants, and schizophrenia: Effects of methylphenidate and the stereoisomers of amphetamine in schizophrenia. In: Neuropsychopharmacology of Monoamines and Their Regulatory Enzymes, Usdin, E. (ed.). New York: Raven Press, 1973, 317–23.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Janowsky, D. S., El-Yousef, M. K., Davis, J. M., and Sekerke, H. J. Provocation of schizophrenic symptoms by intravenous administration of methylphenidate. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1973, 28: 185–191.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Snyder, S. H., Banerjee, S. P.,Yamamura, H. I., and Greenberg, D. Drugs, neurotransmitters, and schizophrenia. Science, 1974, 184: 1243–1253.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Seeman, P., Lee, T., Chau-Wong, M., and Wong, K. Antipsychotic drugs, doses and neuroleptic/dopamine receptors. Nature, 1976, 261: 717–718.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Lee, T., Seeman, P., Tourtellotte, W. W., Farley, I. J., and Hornykeiwicz, O. Binding of 3H-neuroleptics and 3H-apomorphine in schizophrenic brains. Nature, 1978, 274: 897–900.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Rosengarten, H., and Friedhoff, A. J. A review of recent studies of the biosynthesis and excretion of hallucinogens formed by methylation of neurotransmitters or related substances. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1976, 2: 90–105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Osmond, H., and Smythies, J. Schizophrenia: A new approach. Journal of Mental Sciences, 1952, 98: 309–315.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Carpenter, W. T., Fink, E. B., Narasimhachari, N., and Himwich, H. E.: A test of the transmethylation hypotheses in acute schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1975, 132: 1067–1071.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. McGrath, S. D., O’Brien, P. F., Power, P. J., and Shea, J. D. Nicotinamide treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1972, 5: 74–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Meltzer, H. Y. Neuromuscular dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1976, 2: 106–135.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Torrey, E. F., and Peterson, M. R. The viral hypothesis of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1976, 2: 136–146.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Durell, J., and Archer, E. G. Plasma proteins in schizophrenia: A review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1976, 2: 147–160.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Frohman, C. E., Harmison, C. R., Arthur, R. E., and Gottlieb, J. S. Conformation of a unique plasma protein in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 1971, 3: 113–121.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Heath, R. G. An antibrain globulin in schizophrenia. In: Biochemistry, Schizophrenias and Affective Illness, Himwich, H. E. (ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1971, 171–197.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Wyatt, R. J., Potkin, S. G., and Murphy, D. L. Platelet monoamine oxidase activity in schizophrenia: A review of the data. American journal of Psychiatry, 1979, 136: 377–385.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Wyatt, R. J., Murphy, D. L., Belmaker, R., Cohen, S., Donnelly, C. H., and Pollin, W. Reduced monoamine oxidase in platelets: A possible genetic marker for vulnerability to schizophrenia. Science, 1973, 179: 916–918.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Carpenter, W. T., Jr., Murphy, D. L., and Wyatt, R. J. Platelet monoamine oxidase activity in acute schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1975, 132: 438–441.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Holzman, P. S., and Levy, D. L. Smooth pursuit eye movements and functional psychoses: A review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 15–27.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Ban, T. A., and Lehmann, H. E. Nicotinic acid in the treatment of schizophrenia. Part 2. Canadian Psychiatric Association journal, 1975, 20: 103–112.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Leff, D. N. Megavitamins and mental disease. Medical World News, August 11, 1975, 71–82.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Task Force Report 7: Megavitamin and orthomolecular therapy in psychiatry. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Spohn, H. E., and Patterson, T. Recent studies of psychophysiology in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1979, 5: 581–611.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Buchsbaum, M. S. Psychophysiology and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 7–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Chapman, L. J. Recent advances in the study of schizophrenic cognition. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1979, 5: 568–580.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Garmezy, N. The psychology and psychopathology of attention. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 360–369.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Matthysse, S. The biology of attention. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977,3: 370–372.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Itil, T. M. Qualitative and quantitative EEG findings in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 61–79.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Callaway, E., Tueting, P., and Koslow, S. Event-related potentials in man. New York: Academic Press, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Buchsbaum, M. S. The middle evoked response components and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 93–104.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Roth, W. T. Late event-related potentials and psychopathology. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 105–120.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Shagass, C. Early evoked potentials. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 80–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Zahn, T. P. Autonomic nervous system characteristics possibly related to a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 49–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Venables, P. H. The electrodermal physiology of schizophrenics and children at risk for schizophrenia: Controversies and developments. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 1977, 3: 28–47.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Mednick, S. A., and Schulsinger, F. Some premorbid characteristics related to breakdown in children with schizophrenic mothers. In: The Transmission of Schizophrenia, Rosenthal, D., and Kety, S. S. (eds.). New York: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1968, 267–291.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Franzen, G., and Ingvar, D.H. Abnormal distribution of cerebral activity in chronic schizophrenia, Journal of Psychiatric Research, 1975, 12: 199–214.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Monroe, R. R. Eposodic Behavioral Disorders: A Psychodynamic and Neurophysiologic Analysis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Landau, S. G., Buchsbaum, M. S., Carpenter, W. T., Str`uss, J. S., and Sacks, M. Schizophrenia and stimulus intensity control. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1975, 32: 1239–1245.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Coursey, R. D., Buchsbaum, M. S., and Murphy, D. L. Psychological characteristics of subjects identified by platelet MAO activity and evoked potentials as biologically at risk for psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1980, 89: 151–164.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Zahn, T. P., Carpenter, W. T., Jr., and McGlashan, T, H. Autonomic nervous system activity in acute schizophrenia. II. Relationships to short term prognosis and clinical state. Archives of General Psychiatry, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Kety, S. S. Biochemical theories of schizophrenia. Part I. Science, 1959a, 129: 1528–1532.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Kety, S. S. Biochemical theories of schizophrenia. Part II. Science, 1959b, 129: 1590–1596.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Watson, S. J., Akil, H., Berger, P. A., et al. Some observations on the opiate peptides and schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1979, 36: 220–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Snyder, S. H. The opiate receptor and morphine-like peptides in the brain. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1978, 135: 645–652.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Vereby, K., Volavka, J., and Clouet, D. Endorphins in psychiatry. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1978, 35: 877–888.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Terenius, L., Wahlstrom, A., Lindstrom, L., and Widerlov, E. Increased CSF levels of endorphins in chronic psychosis. Neuroscience Letters, 1976, 3: 157–162.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Gunne, L. M., Lundstrom, L., and Terenius, L. Naloxone-induced reversal of schizophrenic hallucinations. Journal of Neural Transmission, 1977, 40: 13–19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Davis, G. C, Bunney, W. E., DeFraites, E. G., Kleinman, J. E., Van Kämmen, D. P., Post, R. M., and Wyatt, R. J. Intravenous naloxone administration in schizophrenia and affective illness. Science, 1977, 197: 74–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Janowsky, D. S., Segal, D. S., Bloom, F., Abrams, A., and Guillemin, R. Lack of effect of naloxone on schizophrenic symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1977, 134: 926–927.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Kurland, A. A., McCabe, O. L., Hanlon, T. H., and Sullivan, D. The treatment of perceptual disturbances in schizophrenia with naloxone hydrochloride. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1977, 134: 1408–1410.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Volavka, J., Mallya, A., Baig, S., and Perez-Cruet, J. Naloxone in chronic schizophrenia. Science, 1977, 196: 1227–1228.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Watson, S. J., Berger, P. A., Akil, H., Mills, J. J., and Barchas, J. D. Effects of naloxone on schizophrenia: Reduction in hallucinations in a subpopulation of subjects. Science, 1978, 201: 73–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Kline, N. S., Li, C. H., Lehmann, H. E., Lajtha, A., Laski, E., and Cooper, T. Beta-endorphin-induced changes in schizophrenic and depressed patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1977, 34: 111–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Berger, P. A., Watson, S. J., Akil, H., Elliott, G. R., Rubin, R. T., Pfefferbaum, A., Davis, K. L., Barchas, J. D., and Li, C.H. β-endorphin and schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1980, 37: 635–640.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA

    John S. Strauss M.D.

  2. Maryland Psychiatric Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

    William T. Carpenter Jr. M.D.

Authors
  1. John S. Strauss M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. William T. Carpenter Jr. M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1981 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Strauss, J.S., Carpenter, W.T. (1981). Etiologies of Schizophrenia. In: Schizophrenia. Critical Issues in Psychiatry. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0327-3_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0327-3_7

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0329-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0327-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation