Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Antipsychotics (Neuroleptics)

  • Chapter
Practitioner’s Guide to Psychoactive Drugs for Children and Adolescents

Abstract

Antipsychotic drugs form a large group of psychoactive agents mainly known for their antipsychotic clinical properties, though they are also effective in a variety of nonpsychotic disorders. Originally, these drugs were named neuroleptics, because of their ability to mimic neurological syndromes,1 and this appellation is still in wide use, especially in the United States.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Hyman SF, Arana GW,Rosenbaum JF: Handbook of Psychiatric Drug Therapy. Boston, Little, Brown and Company, pp. 5–42, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Davis J, Barter J, Kane J: Antipsychotic drugs, in Kaplan H, Sadock B (eds): Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, pp 1591–1621, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Fish B, Shapiro T, Campbell M: Long-term prognosis and the response of schizophrenic children to drug therapy: A controlled study of trifluoperazine. Am J Psychiatry 123:32–39, 1966.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. McClellan J, Werry J: The psychiatric clinics of North America, in Shaffer D (ed): Schizophrenia. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1996, pp 131–148.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Anderson L, Campbell M, Adams P, et al: The effects of haloperidol on discrimination learning and behavioral symptoms in autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord 19:227–239, 1989.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Campbell M, Small A, Green W, et al: Behavioral efficacy of haloperidol and lithium carbonate: A comparison in hospitalized aggressive children with conduct disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:650–656, 1984.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Siefen G, Remschmidt H: Behandlungsergebnisse mit Clozapin bei schizophrenen Jugendlichen. Z Kinder-Jugendpsychiatr 14:245–257, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Muller-Spahn F: The International Risperidone Research Group. Risperidone in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic patients: An international double-blind parallel-group study versus haloperidol. Clin Neuro-pharmacol 15:90A-91A, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Chouinard G, Jones B, Remington G, et al: A Canadian multicenter, placebo-controlled study of fixed doses of risperidone and haloperidol in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol 13:25–40, 1993.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Marder S: Risperidone: Clinical development: North American results. Clin Neuropharmacol 15:92A-93B, 1992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 4. Washington, DC. American Psychiatric Association, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  12. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 3. Washington, DC. American Psychiatric Association Press, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  13. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 3, revised. Washington, DC. American Psychiatric Association, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  14. International classification of diseases ICD-9, in: Manual of the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Thompson J, Green D, Savit H: Preliminary report on a crosswalk from DSM-III to ICD-9-CM. Am J Psychiatry 140:176–180, 1983.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Physicians’ Desk Reference. Oradell, NJ. Medical Economics, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Simpson G. Pharmacology and treatment of the major psychoses. Paper presented at the 30th Annual Meeting of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Abnormal Involuntary Movements Scale. Psychopharmacol Bull 21:1077–1080, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Campbell M: Protocol for rating drug-related AIMS, stereotypies and CPRS assessments. Psychopharmacol Bull 21:1081, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Campbell M, Palij M: Measurement of untoward effects including tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacol Bull 21:1063–1082, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Campbell M, Spencer E, Kowalik S, et al: Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders, in Wiener J (ed): Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Washington, DC. American Psychiatric Association Press, pp 223–239,1991.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Spencer E, Kafantaris V, Padron-Gayol M, et al. Haloperidol in schizophrenic children: Early findings from a study in progress. Psychopharmacol Bull 28:183–186, 1992.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Spencer E, Alpert M, Pouget E: Scales for the assessment of neuroleptic response in schizophrenic children: Specific measures derived from the CPRS. Psychopharmacol Bull 2:199–202, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Pool D, Bloom W, Mielke D, Roniger J, Gallant D: A controlled evaluation of loxitane in seventy-five adolescent schizophrenic patients. Curr Ther Res 19:99–104, 1976.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Realmuto G, Erickson W, Yellin A, et al: Clinical comparison of thiothixene and thioridazine in schizophrenic adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 141:440–442, 1984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kumra S, Jacobson L, Rapoport J: Childhood-onset schizophrenia: A double-blind clozapine trial. Paper presented at the 149th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Gordon C, Frazier J, McKenna K, et al: Childhood-onset schizophrenia: An NIMH study in progress. Schizophr Bull 20:697–712, 1994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Birmaher B, Baker R, Kapur S, Quintana H, Ganguli R: Clozapine for the treatment of adolescents with schizophrenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31:160–164, 1992.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Frazier J, Gordon C, McKenna K, Lenane M, Jih D, Rapoport J: An open trial of clozapine in 11 adolescents with childhood-onset schizophrenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:658–663, 1994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Remschmidt H, Schulz E, Martin M, Warnke A, Trott G: Childhood-onset schizophrenia: History of the concept and recent studies. Schizophr Bull 20:727–745, 1994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Blanz B, Schimdt M: Clozapine for schizophrenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:223–224,1993.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Remschmidt H, Schulz E, Martin P: An open trial of thirty-six adolescents with schizophrenia. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 4:31–41, 1994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Marder S, Meibach R: Risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 151:825–835,1994.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Armenteros J, Whitaker A, Joachim N, Jaffer M, Gorman J: An open trial of risperidone in adolescents with schizophrenia. Paper presented at the workshop on: Critical Issues in the Treatment of Schizophrenia. Campaign on Schizophrenia 1995, pp 176–177.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Cosgrove F: Recent advances in pediatric psychopharmacology [letter]. Hum Psychopharmacol 9:381–382, 1994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Cozza S, Edison D: Risperidone in adolescents [letter]. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:1211, 1994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Greevich S, Findling R. Schulz S, Rowane W: Risperidone in the treatment of children and adolescents with psychotic illness: A retrospective review. Paper presented at the 148th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Simeon J, Carrey N, Wiggins D, Milin R, Hosenbocus S: Risperidone effects in treatment-resistant adolescents: Preliminary case reports. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 5:69–79, 1995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Sternlicht H, Wells S: Risperidone in childhood schizophrenia [letter]. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:540, 1995.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Werry J, McClellan J, Chard L: Childhood and adolescent schizophrenic, bipolar, and schizoaffective disorder: A clinical and outcome study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:457–465, 1991.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Geller B, Cooper T, Farooki Z, et al: Dose and plasma levels of nortriptyline and chlorpromazine in delusionally depressed adolescents and of nortriptyline in nondelusionally depressed adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 142:336–338, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Loranger A, Levine P: Age at onset of bipolar affective illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 30:457–465, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Carlson G: Child and adolescent mania: Diagnostic considerations. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 31:331–341, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Shopsin B, Gershon S, Thompson H, et al: Psychoactive drugs in mania. A controlled comparison of lithium carbonate, chlorpromazine, and haloperidol. Arch Gen Psychiatry 32:34–42, 1975.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Calabrese J, Kimmel S, Woyshville M, et al: Clozapine for treatment-refractory mania. Am J Psychiatry 153:759–764, 1996.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Fuchs D: Clozapine treatment of bipolar disorder in a young adolescent. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:1299–1302, 1994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Kowatch R, Suppes T, Gilfillan S, Fuentes R, Grannemann B, Emslie G: Clozapine treatment of children and adolescents with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: A clinical case series. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 5:241–253, 1995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Campbell M, Gonzalez N, Silva R: Shaffer D (eds): The Pharmacologic Treatment of Conduct Disorders and Rage Outbursts. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1992, pp 69–85.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Cunningham M, Pillai V, Rogers W: Haloperidol in the treatment of children with severe behavioural disorders. Br J Psychiatry 114:845–854, 1968.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Werry J, Aman M, Lampen E: Haloperidol and methylphenidate in hyperactive children. Acta Paedo-psychiatr 42:26–40, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Greenhill L, Barmack J, Spalten D, et al: Molindone hydrochloride in the treatment of aggressive hospitalized children. Psychopharmacol Bull 17:125–127, 1981.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Greenhill L, Solomon M, Pleak R, et al: Molindone treatment of hospitalized children with conduct disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 46:20–25, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Children’s Psychiatric Rating Scale (CPRS). Psychopharmacol Bull 21:765–770, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Wong G, Cock R: Long-term effects of haloperidol on severely emotionally disturbed children. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 5:296–300, 1971.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Werry J, Aman M: Methylphenidate and haloperidol in children: Effects on attention, memory and activity. Arch Gen Psychiatry 32:790–795, 1975.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Piatt J, Campbell M, Green W, et al: Cognitive effects of lithium carbonate and haloperidol in treatment-resistant aggressive children. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:657–662, 1984.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Fras I, Major L: Clinical experience with risperidone [letter]. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:833, 1995.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Campbell M, Anderson L, Meier M, et al: A comparison of haloperidol, behavior therapy and their interaction in autistic children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 17:640–655, 1978.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Anderson L, Campbell M, Grega D, et al: Haloperidol in the treatment of infantile autism: Effects on learning and behavioral symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 141:1195–1202, 1984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Naruse H, Nagahata M, Nakane Y, et al: A multicenter double-blind trial of pimozide (Orap), haloperidol and placebo in children with behavioral disorders, using crossover design. Acta Paedopsychiatr 48:173–184, 1982.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Cohen I, Campbell M, Posner D, et al. Behavioral effects of haloperidol in young autistic children: An objective analysis using a within-subjects reversal design. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 19:665–677,1980.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Deutsch S, Campbell M: Relative affinities for different classes of neurotransmitter receptors predict neuroleptic efficacy in infantile autism. Neuropsychobiology 15:160–164, 1986.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Ernst M, Magee H, Gonzalez N, et al: Pimozide in autistic children. Psychopharmacol Bull 27:401–409,1992.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Campbell M: Pharmacotherapy in early infantile autism. Biol Psychiatry 10:399–423, 1975.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Campbell M, Schopler E: Pervasive developmental disorders, in Karasu TB (chairperson) (ed): Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders: A Task Force Report. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association Press, 1989, pp 179–294.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Tarjan C, Lowery V, Wright S: Use of chlorpromazine in two hundred seventy-eight mentally deficient patients. AMA J Disturbed Child 94:294–300, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Pregelj S, Barkauskas A: Thioridazine in the treatment of mentally retarded children. A four-year retroactive evaluation. J Can Psychiatr Assoc 12:213–215, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Freeman R: Psychopharmacology and the retarded child, in Menolascino F (ed): Psychiatric Approaches to Mental Retardation. New York, Basic Books, 1970, pp 294–368.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Campbell M, Fish B, Shapiro T, et al: Thiothixene in young disturbed children: A pilot study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 23:70–72, 1970.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Campbell M, Fish B, Shapiro T, et al. Study of molindone in disturbed preschool children. Curr Ther Res 13:28–33, 1971.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Locascio J, Malone R, Small A, et al: Factors related to haloperidol response and dyskinesias in autistic children. Psychopharmacol Bull 27:119–126, 1991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Rett A: Uber ein eingenartiges himtrophicshes Syndrome bei Hyperammonamie in Kindersalter. Wien Med Wochenschr 166:723–738, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Perry R, Campbell M, Adams P: Long-term efficacy of haloperidol in autistic children: Continuous versus discontinuous drug administration. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28:87–92, 1989.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Die Trill M, Wolsky B, Shell J, et al: Effects of long term haloperidol treatment on intellectual functioning in autistic children: A pilot study. Paper presented at the 31st Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Shell J, Perry R, Adams P, et al: Effects of long-term haloperidol treatment on intellectual functioning in autistic children. Paper presented at the 34th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  76. McDougle C, Brodkin E, Yeung P, Naylor S, Cohen D, Price L: Risperidone in adults with autism or pervasive developmental disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 5:273–282, 1995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Purdon S, Lit W, Labelle A, Jones B: Risperidone in the treatment of pervasive developmental disorder. Can J Psychiatry 39:400–405, 1994.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Perry R, Pataki C, Munoz-Silva DM, Armenteros J, Silva RR: Risperidone in children and adolescents with pervasive developmental disorder: pilot trial and follow-up. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 7(3): 167–179, 1997.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Borison R, Ang L, Chang S, et al: New pharmacological approaches in the treatment of Tourette’s syndrome, in Friedhoff A, Chase T (eds): Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. New York, Raven Press, 1982, pp 377–382.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Shapiro E, Shapiro A, Fulop G, et al: Controlled study of haloperidol, pimozide, and placebo for the treatment of Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46:722–730, 1989.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Bruun R: Subtle and underrecognized side effects of neuroleptic treatment in children with Tourette’s disorder. Am J Psychiatry 145:621–624, 1988.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Sallee FR, Nesbitt L, Jackson C, et al: Relative efficacy of haloperidol and pimozide in children and adolescents with Tourette’s disorders. Am J Psychiatry 154:1057–1062, 1997.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. van der Linden C, Bruggeman R, van Woerkom T: Serotonin-dopamine antagonist and Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome: An open pilot dose-titration study with risperidone. Mov Disord 9:687–688, 1994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Lombroso P, Scahill L, King R, et al: Risperidone treatment of children and adolescents with chronic tic disorders: A preliminary report. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:1147–1152, 1995.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Campbell M, Malone R: Mental retardation and psychiatry disorders. Hosp Community Psychiatry 42:374–379, 1991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Aman M, Singh N: Psychopharmacology of the Developmental Disabilities. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1988, pp 1–28.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  87. Aman M, Singh N: Pharmacotherapy and mental retardation, in Matson J, Mulick J (eds): Handbook of Mental Retardation. New York, Pergamon Press, 1991, pp 347–372.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Vanden Borre R, Vermote R, Buttiens M, et al: Risperidone as add-on therapy in behavioral disturbances in mental retardation: A double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 87:167–171, 1995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Intagliata J, Rimck C: Psychoactive drug use in public and community residential facilities for mentally retarded persons. Psychopharmacol Bull 21:268–278, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Aman M: Drugs and learning in mentally retarded persons, in Burrows G, Werry J (eds): Advances in Human Psychopharmacology. Greenwich, Conn, JAI Press; 1984, pp 121–163.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Aman M, White A, Field C: Chlorpromazine effects on stereotypic and conditioned behaviour of severely retarded patients—a pilot study. J Ment Defic Res 28:253–260, 1984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Claghorn J: A double-blind comparison of haloperidol (Haldol) and thioridazine (Mellaril) in outpatient children. Curr Ther Res 14:785–789, 1972.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Aman M, Singh N: Manual for the Abberant Behavior Checklist. East Aurora, NY, Slosson Educational Publications; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Aman M, Teehan C, White A, et al: Haloperidol treatment with chronically medicated residents: Dose effects on clinical behavior and reinforcement contingencies. Am J Ment Retard 95:452–460, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Singh N, Aman M: Effects of thioridazine dosage on the behavior of severely mentally retarded persons. Am J Ment Defic 85:580–587, 1981.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Aman M, Marks R, Turbott S, et al: Clinical effects of methylphenidate and thioridazine in intellectually subaverage children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:246–256, 1991.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. White A, Aman M: Pimozide treatment in disruptive severely retarded patients. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 19: 92–94, 1985.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Goldberg J, Kurland A: Pimozide in the treatment of behavioral disorders of hospitalized adolescents. J Clin Pharmacol 14:134–139, 1974.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Aman M, Marks R, Turbott S, et al: Methylphenidate and thioridazine in the treatment of intellectually subaverage children: Effects on cognitive-motor performance. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30: 816–824, 1991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Gittelman-Klein R, Klein D, Katz S, et al: Comparative effects of methylphenidate and thioridazine in hyperkinetic children: I. Clinical results. Arch Gen Psychiatry 33:1217–1231, 1976.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Sleator E, von Neumann A, Sprague R: Hyperactive children: A continuous long-term placebo-controlled follow-up. JAMA 229:316–317, 1974.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Werry J, Weiss G, Douglas V, et al: Studies on the hyperactive child: III. The effect of chlorpromazine upon behavior and learning ability. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 5:292–312, 1966.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Rapoport J, Abramson A, Alexander D, et al: Playroom observations on hyperactive children on medication. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 10:524–534, 1971.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Aman M: Drugs, learning and the psychotherapies, in Werry J (ed): Pediatric Psychopharmacology: The Use of Behavior Modifying Drugs in Children. New York, Brunner/Mazel, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Davis K, Kahn R, Ko G, et al: Dopamine in schizophrenia: A review and reconceptualization. Am J Psychiatry 148:1474–1486, 1991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Sokoloff P, Giros B, Martres M, et al: Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel dopamine receptor (D3) as a target for neuroleptics. Nature 347:146–159, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Gould R, Murphy K, Reynolds I, et al: Antischizophrenic drugs of the diphenylbutylpiperidine type act as calcium channel antagonists. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80:5122–5125, 1983.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Peroutka S, Snyder S: Relationship of neuroleptic drug effects at brain dopamine, serotonin, alpha-adrenergic, and histamine receptors to clinical potency. Am J Psychiatry 137:1518–1522, 1980.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Richelson E: Neuroleptic affinities for human brain receptors and their use in predicting adverse effects. J Clin Psychiatry 45:331–336, 1984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Farde L, Wiesel F, Stone-Elander S, et al: D2 receptors in neuroleptic naive schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47:213–219, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Pilowsky L, Costa D, Ell P, et al: Clozapine, single photon emission tomography and D2 dopamine receptor blockade hypothesis of schizophrenia. Lancet 340:119–202, 1992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Farde L, Nordstrom AL, Wiesel F-A, Pauli S, Halldin C, Sedvall G: Positron emission tomographic analysis of central D 1 and D2 dopamine receptor occupancy in patients treated with classical neuroleptics and clozapine: Relation to extrapyramidal side effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49:538–544, 1992.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Van Tol H, Bunzow J, Guan H, et al: Cloning of the gene for human D4 receptor with high affinity for the antipsychotic clozapine. Nature 350:610–619, 1991.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Altar C, Wasley A, Neale R, et al: Typical and atypical antipsychotic occupancy of D2 and S2 receptors: An autoradiographic analysis in rat brain. Brain Res Bull 16:517–525, 1988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  115. Canton H, Verriele L, Colpaert F: Binding of typical and atypical antipsychotics to 5HT1C and 5HT2 sites. Eur J Pharmacol 191:93–96, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Robertson G, Fibiger H: Neuroleptics increase c-fos expression in the forebrain: Contrasting effects of haloperidol and clozapine. Neuroscience 46:315–328, 1992.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Meltzer H: Role of serotonin in the action of atypical antipsychotic drugs. Clin Neurosci 3:64–75, 1995.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Mandoki M: Risperidone treatment of children and adolescents: Increased risk of extrapyramidal side effects. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 5:49–67, 1995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Baldessarini R, Teicher M: Dosing of antipsychotic agents in pediatric populations [editorial]. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 5:1–4, 1995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Synder S, Greenberg D, Yamamura H: Antischizophrenic drugs and brain cholinergic receptors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 31:58–61, 1974.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Ekblom B, Ericksson K, Lindstrom L: Super sensitivity psychosis in schizophrenic patients after sudden clozapine withdrawal. Psychopharmacol Bull 83:293–294, 1984.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Dilsaver S, Greyden J: Antidepressant withdrawal phenomena. Biol Psychiatry 19:237–256, 1984.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Dilsaver S, Feinberg M, Greyden J: Antidepressant withdrawal symptoms treated with anticholinergic agents. Am J Psychiatry 140:249–251, 1983.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Chouinard G: Severe cases of neuroleptic-induced super sensitivity psychosis. Diagnostic criteria for the disorder and its treatment. Schizophr Res 5:21–33, 1990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Geller B: Psychopharmacology of children and adolescents: Pharmacokinetics and relationships of plasma/ serum levels to response. Psychopharmacol Bull 27:401–409, 1991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Furlanut M, Benetello P, Baraldo M, et al: Chlorpromazine disposition in relation to age in children. Clin Pharmacokinet 18:329–331, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Morselli P, Bianchetti G, Durand G, et al: Haloperidol plasma level monitoring in pediatric patients. Ther Drug Monit 1:35–46, 1979.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Poland R, Campbell M, Rubin R, et al: Relationship of serum haloperidol levels and clinical response in autistic children. Paper presented at the 13th CINP Congress (Collegium Internationale Psychophar-macologicum), Jerusalem, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Rivera-Camlimlin L, Griesbach P, Perlmutter R: Plasma chlorpromazine concentrations in children with behavioral disorders and mental illness. Clin Pharmacol Ther 26:114–121, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Campbell M, Poland R, Perry R, et al: Serum haloperidol levels and prolactin levels and clinical response in autistic children. Paper presented at the 35th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Seattle, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Brosen K: Recent developments in hepatic drug oxidation: Implications for clinical pharmacokinetics. Clin Pharmacokinet 18:220–239, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Rivera-Camlimlin L, Nasrallah H, Strauss J, et al. Clinical response and plasma levels: Effect of dose, dosage, schedules, and drug interactions on plasma chlorpromazine levels. Am J Psychiatry 133:652, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Devinsky O, Honigfeld G, Patin J: Clozapine-related seizures. Neurology 41:369–371, 1991.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Goff DC, Baldessarini RJ: Antipsychotics, in Ciraulo DA, Shader RA, Greenblatt DJ, Creelman W (eds): Drug Interactions in Psychiatry. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1995, pp 129–174.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Centorrino F, Baldessarini RJ, Frankenburg FR, Kando J, Volpicelli, Flood JG: Serum levels of clozapine and norclozapine in patients treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Am J Psychiatry 153:820–822, 1996.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Ciraulo DA, Shader RI: Fluoxetine drug-drug interactions: I. Antidepressants and antipsychotics. J Clin Psychopharmacol 10:48–50, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Mikkelson E, Detlor J, Cohen D: School avoidance and social phobia trigerred by haloperidol in patients with Tourette’s disorder. Am J Psychiatry 138:1572–1575, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Baldasserini R: Drugs and the treatment of psychiatric disorders, in Gilman A, Rall T, Nies A (eds): Goodman and Gilmans The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. New York, Maxwell/McMillan; 1991, pp 383–437.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Schmidt MH, Trott GE, Blanz B, Nissen G: Clozapine medication in adolescents, in Psychiatry: A World Perspective, Stefania CN, Rabavilas AD, Soldates CR (eds). Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, Proceedings of the VIII World Congress of Psychiatry, 1990, vol 1, pp 1100–1104.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Keepers G, Clappison V, Casey D: Initial anticholinergic prophylaxis for neuroleptic-induced extrapyramidal syndromes. Arch Gen Psychiatry 40:1113–1117, 1983.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Richardson M, Haughland G, Craig T: Neuroleptic use, parkinsonian symptoms, tardive dyskinesia, and associated factors in child and adolescent psychiatric patients. Am J Psychiatry 148:1322–1328, 1991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Kane J, Jeste D, Barnes T, et al: Tardive Dyskinesia: A Task Force Report. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association Press; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Delay J, Deniker P: Drug-induced extrapyramidal syndromes, in Vinken P, Bruyn G (eds): Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Amsterdam, North-Holland Publishing Co, 1968, pp 248–266.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Rifkin A, Quitkin F, Klein D: Akinesia: A poorly recognized drug-induced extrapyramidal behavioral disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 32:672–674, 1975.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Van Putten T, Mutalipassi L, Malkin M: Phenothiazine-induced decompensation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 30:102–105, 1974.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Van Putten T, May P, Marder S: Akathisia with haloperidol and thiothixene. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:1036–1039, 1984.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Campbell M, Adams P, Perry R, et al: Tardive and withdrawal dyskinesia in autistic children: A prospective study. Psychopharmacol Bull 24:251–255, 1988.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Campbell M, Grega D, Green W, et al: Neuroleptic-induced dyskinesias in children. Clin Neuropharmacol 6:207–222, 1983.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Perry R, Nobler M, Campbell M: Case report: Tourette-like symptoms associated with chronic neuroleptic therapy in an autistic child. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28:93–96, 1989.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Klawans H, Nausieda P, Goetz C, et al: Tourette-like symptoms following chronic neuroleptic therapy, in Friedhoff A, Chase T (eds): Advances in Neurology. New York, Raven Press, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  151. Smith R, Domino E: Dystonic and dyskinetic reactions induced by H1 antihistaminc medication, in Fann W, Smith R, Davis J, et al (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia: Research and Treatment. Jamaica, NY, Spectrum Publications; 1980, pp 325–332.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  152. Thach B, Chase T, Bosnian J: Oral facial dyskinesia associated with prolonged use of antihistaminic decongestants. N Engl J Med 293:486–487, 1975.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Chadwick D, Reynolds E, Marsden C: Anticonvulsant induced dyskinesias. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 39:1210–1218, 1979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  154. Gardos G, Cole J, La Brie R: The assessment of tardive dyskinesia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 34:1206–1212, 1977.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Gerlach J: Pathophysiological mechanisms underlying tardive dyskinesia, in Casey D, Chase T, Christensen D, et al (eds): Dyskinesia—Research and Treatment (Psychopharmacology Suppl 2). Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1985, pp 99–103.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Kane J, Smith J: Tardive dyskinesia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:473–481, 1982.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Crane G, Naranjo E: Motor disorders induced by neuroleptics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 24:178–184, 1971.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Gardos G, Cole J, Tarsy D: Withdrawal symptoms associated with antipsychotic drugs. Am J Psychiatry 135:1321–1324, 1978.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. McAndrew J, Case Q, Treffert D: Effects of prolonged phenothiazine intake on psychotic and other hospitalized children. J Autism Child Schizophr 2:75–91, 1972.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Gualtieri C, Quade D, Hicks R, et al: Tardive dyskinesia and other clinical consequences of neuroleptic treatment in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 141:20–23, 1984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Engelhardt D, Polizios P: Adverse effects of pharmacotherapy in childhood psychosis, in Lipton M, DiMascio A, Killam K (eds): Psychopharmacology: A Generation of Progress. New York, Raven Press; 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Owens D, Johnstone E, Frith C: Spontaneous involuntary disorders of movement: Their prevalence, severity and distribution in chronic schizophrenics with and without treatment with neuroleptics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:452–461, 1982.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Meiselas K, Spencer E, Oberfield R, et al: Differentiation of stereotypies from neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in autistic children. J Clin Psychopharmacol 9:207–209, 1989.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Schooler, N, Kane J: Research diagnoses for tardive dyskinesia [letter to the editor]. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:486–487, 1982.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Campbell M, Locascio J, Choroco M, et al: Stereotypies and tardive dyskinesia: Abnormal movements in autistic children. Psychopharmacol Bull 26:260–266, 1990.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Malone R, Ernst M, Godfrey K, Locascio J, Campbell M: Repeated episodes of neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in autistic children. Psychopharmacol Bull 27:113–117, 1991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Kane J, Honigfeld G, Singer J, Meltzer H: Clozaril Collaborative Study Group: Clozapine for the treatment-treatment resistant schizophrenic: A double-blind comparison with chlorpromazine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45:789–796, 1988.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Woener M, Sheitman B, Lieberman J, Kane J: Tardive dyskinesia induced by risperidone? [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 153:843, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  169. Crane G: Neuroleptics and their long-term effects on the central nervous system, in DeVeaugh-Geiss J (ed): Tardive Dyskinesia and Related Involuntary Movement Disorders. Boston, John Wright Publishing Co, 1982, pp 71–84.

    Google Scholar 

  170. McLean P, Casey D: Tardive dyskinesia in an adolescent. Am J Psychiatry 135:969–971, 1978.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Villeneuve A: The rabbit syndrome: A peculiar extrapyramidal reaction. Can J Psychiatry 17:69–72, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  172. Campbell M, Cohen I, Small A: Drugs in aggressive behavior. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 21:107–117, 1982.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Spencer EK, Campbell M: Children with schizophrenia: Diagnosis, phenomenology and pharmacotherapy. Schizophr Bull 20(4):713–725, 1994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Simpson G: APA Task Force on Sudden Death. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association Press, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  175. Silver J, Yudofsky S: Psychopharmacology and electroconvulsive therapy, in Talbott J, Hales R, Yudofsky S (eds): The American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Psychiatry. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press; 1989, pp 767–843.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Levinson F, Simpson G: Neuroleptic-induced extrapyramidal symptoms with fever. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43:839–848, 1986.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Geller B, Greydanus D: Haloperidol-induced comatose state with hyperthermia and rigidity in adolescence: Two case reports with a literature review. J Clin Psychiatry 40:102–103, 1979.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Klein S, Levinsohn M, Blumer J: Accidental chlorpromazine ingestion as a cause of neuroleptic malignant syndrome in children. J Pediatr 107:970–973, 1985.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Green WH, Campbell M, Wolsky BB: Effects of short and long term haloperidol administration on growth in young autistic children. Paper presented at the 31st Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  180. Hamill PVV, Drizd TA, Johnson CL, et al: NCHS Growth Charts, 1976. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Health Examination Survey Data, National Center for Health Statistics Publication (HRA) 76–1120, 25(3): 1–22, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  181. Van Kammen D, Marder S: Biological therapies: Clozapine, in Kaplan H, Sadock B (eds): Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry VI. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Rapoport J: Clozapine and child psychiatry [editorial]. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 4:1–3, 1994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  183. Lieberman J, Yunis J, Egea E, Conoso R, Kane J, et al: HLA B38, DR4, DQW3 and clozapine-induced agranulocytosis in Jewish patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47:945–948, 1990.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Haller E, Binder R: Clozapine and seizures. Am J Psychiatry 147:1069–1071, 1990.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Freedman J, Wirshing W, Russell A, Palmer Bray M, Unutzer J: Absence status seizures during successful long-term treatment of an adolescent with schizophrenia. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 4:53–62, 1994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  186. Birmaher B: Clozapine for child and adolescent schizophrenia. Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol News 1: 1–4, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  187. Simpson G, Lee J, Shrivastava R: Clozapine in tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology 56:75–80, 1978.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Alphs L, Lee H: Comparison of withdrawal or dose reduction of clozapine. J Clin Psychiatry 52:346–348, 1991.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Eklund K: Super sensitivity and clozapine withdrawal. Psychopharmacology 91:135, 1987.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Borison R, Diamond B, Sinha D, Gupta R, Prince Ajiboye A: Clozapine withdrawal rebound psychosis. Psychopharmacol Bull 24:260–263, 1988.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Allen MD, Greenblatt DJ, Noel BJ: Overdose with antipsychotic agents. Am J Psychiatry 137:234–236, 1980.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Cunningham DG, Challapalli M: Hypertension in acute haloperidol poisoning. J Pediatr 95:489–490, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  193. Giannini AJ: Psychotropic Drug Overdose. New York, Hemisphere Publishing Corp., 1992, p 39.

    Google Scholar 

  194. Buckley NA, Whyte IM, Dawson AH: Cardiotoxicity more common in thioridazine overdose than with other neuroleptics. Clin Toxicol 33:199–204, 1995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  195. Krishel S, Jackimczyck K: Antidepressants, lithium, and neuroleptic agents. Psychiatr Asp Emerg Med 9:53–85, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Brain Imaging Center, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Baltimore, Maryland, 21224, USA

    Monique Ernst M.D., Ph.D. & Regina George M.D.

  2. Department of Mental Health Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19129, USA

    Richard P. Malone M.D.

  3. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA

    Amy B. Rowan M.D.

  4. Department of Psychiatry, Henry Ittleson Center, Bronx, New York, 10471, USA

    Nilda M. Gonzalez M.D.

  5. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Department, St. Lukes/Roosevelt Hospital, New York, New York, 10025, USA

    Raul R. Silva M.D.

Authors
  1. Monique Ernst M.D., Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Richard P. Malone M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Amy B. Rowan M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Regina George M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Nilda M. Gonzalez M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Raul R. Silva M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

    John Scott Werry M.D.

  2. Psychology and Psychiatry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA

    Michael G. Aman Ph.D. (Professor) (Professor)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ernst, M., Malone, R.P., Rowan, A.B., George, R., Gonzalez, N.M., Silva, R.R. (1999). Antipsychotics (Neuroleptics). In: Werry, J.S., Aman, M.G. (eds) Practitioner’s Guide to Psychoactive Drugs for Children and Adolescents. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0086-9_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0086-9_10

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-306-45885-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0086-9

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation