The Evolution of Conspicuous and Distinctive Coloration for Communication in Birds

  • Gregory S. Butcher
  • Sievert Rohwer
Chapter
Part of the Current Ornithology book series (CUOR, volume 6)

Abstract

Our goal is to elucidate the selective pressures that account for the origin and maintenance of conspicuous and distinctive coloration (hereafter referred to collectively as colorfulness) in birds. Our ideas are relevant to the study of other animals as well. We propose an “adaptationist program” (Gould and Lewontin, 1979) that features the use of the comparative method (Hailman, 1976; Ridley, 1983; Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1984), color manipulations, and tests of a priori predictions. Our major effort is to compare and contrast the major hypotheses that have been proposed to account for colorfulness in birds. Progress in understanding bird coloration will come more quickly when researchers evaluate more than one hypothesis at a time. The availability of multiple hypotheses serves two major purposes. First, it frees the researcher from psychological dependence on the hypotheses being tested (Loehle, 1987). Second, with careful planning, it permits strong inference testing (Platt, 1964) among the most relevant hypotheses.

Keywords

Sexual Selection Mate Choice Mate Attraction Fighting Ability Nonbreeding Season 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. A. O. U., 1983, Check-list of North American Birds, 6th ed., American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
  2. Andersson, M., 1982a, Sexual selection, natural selection, and quality advertisement, Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 17:375–393.Google Scholar
  3. Andersson, M., 1982b, Female choice selects for extreme tail length in a widowbird, Nature (Lond.). 299:818–820.Google Scholar
  4. Andersson, M., 1983, On the functions of conspicuous seasonal plumages in birds, Anim. Behav. 31:1262–1264.Google Scholar
  5. Andersson, M., 1986, Evolution of condition-dependent sex ornaments and mating preferences: Sexual selection based on viability differences, Evolution 40:804–816.Google Scholar
  6. Arnold, S. J., 1983, Sexual selection: The interface of theory and empiricism, in: Mate Choice (P. Bateson, ed.), pp. 67–107, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
  7. Arnold, S. J., and Wade M. J., 1984, On the measurement of natural and sexual selection: Applications, Evolution 38:720–734.Google Scholar
  8. Bailey, S. F., 1978, Latitudinal gradients in colors and patterns of passerine birds, Condor 80:372–381.Google Scholar
  9. Baker, R. R., 1985, Bird coloration: In defence of unprofitable prey, Anim. Behav. 33:1387–1388.Google Scholar
  10. Baker, R. R., and Hounsome, M. V., 1983, Bird coloration: Unprofitable prey model supported by ringing data, Anim. Behav. 31:614–615.Google Scholar
  11. Baker, R. E., and Parker, G. A., 1979, The evolution of bird coloration, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B287:63–130.Google Scholar
  12. Balph, M. H., Balph, D. F., and Romesburg, H. C., 1979, Social status signaling in winter flocking birds: An examination of a current hypothesis, Auk 96:78–93.Google Scholar
  13. Bateson, P., 1983, Optimal outbreeding, in: Mate Choice (P. Bateson, ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 257–277.Google Scholar
  14. Beehler, B., 1983, Frugivory and polygamy in birds of paradise, Auk 100:1–12.Google Scholar
  15. Beehler, B., and Pruett-Jones, S. G., 1983, Display dispersion and diet of birds of paradise: A comparison of nine species, Behav. Ecol. Sociohiol. 13:229–238.Google Scholar
  16. Bischoff, R. J., Gould, J. L., and Rubenstein, D. I., 1985, Tail size and female choice in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata), Behav. Ecol. Sociohiol. 17:253–256.Google Scholar
  17. Bleiweiss, R., 1985, Iridescent polychromatism in a female hummingbird: Is it related to feeding strategies?, Auk 102:701–713.Google Scholar
  18. Boake, C. R. B., 1986, A method for testing adaptive hypotheses of mate choice, Am. Nat. 127:645–666.Google Scholar
  19. Borgia, G., 1979, Sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems, in: Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition in Insects (M. S. Blum and N. A. Blum, eds.), Academic, New York, pp. 19–80.Google Scholar
  20. Borowski, R., 1982, Tailspots of Xiphophorus and the evolution of conspicuous polymorphism, Evolution 35:345–358.Google Scholar
  21. Brian, A. D., 1949, Dominance in the Great Tit (Parus major), Scott. Nat. 61:144–155.Google Scholar
  22. Brown, J. H., Cantrell, M. A., and Evans, S. M., 1973, Observations on the behaviour and coloration of some coral reef fish (Family: Pomacentridae), Mar. Behav. Physiol. 2:63–71.Google Scholar
  23. Brown, J. L., 1963, Aggressiveness, dominance and social organization in the Stellar Jay, Condor 65:460–484.Google Scholar
  24. Brown, L., 1981, Patterns of female choice in mottled sculpins (Cottidae, Teleostei), Anim. Behav. 29:375–382.Google Scholar
  25. Burley, N., 1981, The evolution of sexual indistinguishability, in: Naturai Selection and Social Behavior (R. D. Alexander and D. W. Tinker, eds.), Chiron, New York, pp. 121–137.Google Scholar
  26. Burley, N., 1986, Comparisons of the band-colour preferences of two species of estrildid finches, Anim. Behav. 34:1732–1741.Google Scholar
  27. Burley, N., Krantzberg, G., and Radman, P., 1982, Influence of colour-banding on the conspecific preferences of zebra finches, Anim. Behav. 30:444–455.Google Scholar
  28. Burtt, E. H., Jr., 1979, Tips on wings and other things, in: The Behavioral Significance of Color (E. H. Burtt, Jr., ed.), Garland STPM Press, New York and London, pp. 75–110.Google Scholar
  29. Burtt, E. H., Jr., 1981, The adaptiveness of animal colors, Bioscience 31:723–729.Google Scholar
  30. Burtt, E. H., Jr., 1986, An analysis of physical, physiological, and optical aspects of avian coloration with emphasis on wood-warblers, Ornithol. Monog. (AOU) 38:1–126.Google Scholar
  31. Butcher, G. S., 1984, Sexual color dimorphism in orioles (the Genus icterus): Tests of communication hypotheses, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle.Google Scholar
  32. Butlin, R., 1987, Speciation by reinforcement, Trends Ecol. Evol. 2:8–13.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. Caldwell, G. S., 1981, Attraction to mixed-species heron flocks, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 8:99–103.Google Scholar
  34. Caldwell, G. S., 1986, Predation as a selective force on foraging herons: Effects of plumage color and flocking, Auk 103:494–505.Google Scholar
  35. Caro, T. M., 1986, The functions of stotting in Thomson’s gazelles: Some tests of the predictions, Anim. Behav. 34:663–684.Google Scholar
  36. Chen, D.-M., and Goldsmith, T. H., 1986, Four spectral classes of cone in the retinas of birds, J. Comp. Phys. Al59:473–479.Google Scholar
  37. Clements, J., 1981, Birds of the World: A Checklist, 3rd ed., Facts on File, New York.Google Scholar
  38. Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Harvey, P. H., 1984, Comparative approaches to investigating adaptation, in: Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies, eds.), 2nd ed., Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 7–29.Google Scholar
  39. Colgan, P., 1983, Comparative Social Recognition, Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
  40. Collias, E. C., Collias, N. E., Jacobs, C. H., McAlary, F., and Fujimoto, J. T., 1979, Experimental evidence for facilitation of pair formation by bright color in weaverbirds, Condor 81:91–93.Google Scholar
  41. Collias, N. E., 1943, Statistical analysis of factors which make for success in initial encounters between hens, Am. Nat. 77:519–538.Google Scholar
  42. Cooke, F., and Davies, J. C., 1983, Assortative mating, mate choice, and reproductive fitness in Snow Geese, in: Mate Choice (P. Bateson, ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 279–295.Google Scholar
  43. Cooke, F., Findlay, C. S., Rockwell, R. F., and Smith, J. A., 1985, Life history studies in the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens). III. The selective value of plumage polymorphism: new fecundity, Evolution 39:165–177.Google Scholar
  44. Cott, H. B., 1946, The edibility of birds, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 116:371–524.Google Scholar
  45. Cott, H. B., 1985, Palatability of birds and eggs, in: A Dictionary of Birds (B. Campbell and E. Lack, eds.), Poyser, Calton, p. 427.Google Scholar
  46. Cott, H. B., and Benson, C. W., 1970, The palatability of birds, mainly based upon observations of a tasting panel in Zambia, Ostrich Suppl. 8:357–384.Google Scholar
  47. Coutlee, E. L., 1967, Agonistic behavior in the American Goldfinch, Wilson Bull. 79:89–100.Google Scholar
  48. Cracraft, J., 1981, Toward a phylogenetic classification of the recent birds of the world (Class Aves), Auk 98:681–714.Google Scholar
  49. Crook, J. H., 1964, The evolution of social organization and visual communication in the weaverbirds (Ploceinae), Behaviour Suppl. 10:1–178.Google Scholar
  50. Croze, H., 1970, Searching image in Carrion Crows, Z. Tierpsychol. Beiheft 5:1–86.Google Scholar
  51. Curio, E., 1976, The Ethology of Predation, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.Google Scholar
  52. Darwin, C., 1871, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Belation to Sex, John Murray, London (1890, 2nd ed.)Google Scholar
  53. Davies, N. B., 1978, Territorial defence in the speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria), the resident always wins, Anim. Behav. 26:138–147.Google Scholar
  54. Davies, N. B., and Houston, A. I., 1981, Owners and satellites: The economics of territory defense in the Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba, J. Anim. Ecol. 50:157–180.Google Scholar
  55. Dawkins, R., and Krebs, J. R., 1979, Arms races between and within species, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 205:489–504.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  56. Dilger, W. C., 1956, Hostile behavior and reproductive isolating mechanisms in the avian genera Catharus and Hylocichla, Auk 73:313–353.Google Scholar
  57. Dilger, W. C., 1960, Agonistic and social behavior of captive redpolls, Wilson Bull. 72:114–132.Google Scholar
  58. Dixon, K. L., 1963, Some aspects of social organization in the Carolina Chickadee, Proceedings XIII International Ornithological Congress, June 17–24, 1962, C. G. Sibley, ed., American Ornithologists’ Union, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, pp. 240–258.Google Scholar
  59. Dobzhansky, T., 1937, Genetics and the Origin of Species, Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
  60. Dominey, W. J., 1983, Sexual selection, additive genetic variance and the “phenotypic handicap,” J. Theor. Biol. 101:495–502.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. Dwight, J., 1900, The sequence of plumages and moults of the passerine birds of New York, Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 13:73–360 (1975: repr.).Google Scholar
  62. Ehrlich, P. R., Talbot, F. H., Russell, B. C., and Anderson, G. R. V., 1977, The behaviour of chaetodontid fishes with special reference to Lorenz’ “poster coloration” hypothesis, J. Zool. Lond. 183:213–228.Google Scholar
  63. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I., 1970, Ethology: The Biology of Behavior, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York.Google Scholar
  64. Endler, J. A., 1978, A predator’s view of animal color patterns, in: Evolutionary Biology, Vol. 11 (M. K. Hecht, W. C. Steere, and B. Wallace, eds.), Plenum, New York, pp. 319–364.Google Scholar
  65. Endler, J. A., 1980, Natural selection on color patterns in Poecilia reticulata, Evolution 34:76–91.Google Scholar
  66. Endler, J. A., 1983, Natural and sexual selection on color patterns in poeciliid fishes, Environ. Biol. Fishes 9:173–190.Google Scholar
  67. Endler, J. A., 1987, Predation, light intensity, and courtship behaviour in Poecilia reticulata (Pisces: Poeciliidae), Anim. Behav. 35:1376–1385.Google Scholar
  68. Ewald, P. W., and Rohwer, S. A., 1980, Age, coloration, and dominance in nonbreeding hummingbirds: A test of the asymmetry hypothesis, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 7:273–279.Google Scholar
  69. Findlay, C. S., Rockwell, R. F., Smith, J. A., and Cooke, F., 1985, Life history studies of the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens). VI. Plumage polymorphism, assortative mating, and fitness, Evolution 39:904–914.Google Scholar
  70. Fisher, R. A., 1930, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1958, 2nd ed., Dover, New York).Google Scholar
  71. Forbush, E. H., and May, J. B., 1929, Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States. III. Land Birds from Sparrows to Thrushes, Norwood Press, Norwood Massachusetts.Google Scholar
  72. Ford, E. B., 1975, Ecological Genetics, 4th ed., Chapman and Hall, London; Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
  73. Foster, M. S., 1987, Delayed maturation, neoteny, and social system differences in two manakins of the genus Chiroxiphia, Evolution 41:547–558.Google Scholar
  74. Fretwell, S. D., 1972, Populations in a Seasonal Environment, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
  75. Fugle, G. N., Rothstein, S. I., Osenberg, C. W., and McGinley, M. A., 1984, Signals of status in wintering White-crowned Sparrows, Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii, Anim. Behav. 32:86–93.Google Scholar
  76. Gardarsson, A., 1971, Food ecology and spacing behavior of Rock Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus in Iceland, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
  77. Gilliard, E. T., 1969, Birds of Paradise and Bower Birds, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London; Natural History Press, Garden City, New Jersey.Google Scholar
  78. Glase, J., 1973, Ecology of social organization in the Black-capped Chickadee, Living Bird 12:235–267.Google Scholar
  79. Goodwin, D., 1951, Some aspects of the behaviour of the jay Garrulus glandarius, Ibis 93:414–442, 602-625.Google Scholar
  80. Goodwin, D., 1960, Sexual dimorphism in pigeons, Bull. Br. Ornithol. Club 80:45–52.Google Scholar
  81. Götmark, F., 1987, White underparts in gulls function as hunting camouflage, Anim. Behav. 35:1786–1792.Google Scholar
  82. Gould, S. J., and Lewontin, R. C., 1979, The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 205:581–598.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  83. Grant, P. R., 1965, Plumage and the evolution of birds on islands, Syst. Zool. 14:47–52.Google Scholar
  84. Grant, P. R., 1975, The classic case of character displacement, in: Evolutionary Biology, Vol. 8 (T. Dobzhansky, M. K. Hecht, and W. C. Steere, eds.), Plenum, New York, pp. 237–337.Google Scholar
  85. Hailman, J. P., 1959, Why is the male Wood Duck strikingly colorful?, Am. Nat. 93:383–384.Google Scholar
  86. Hailman, J. P., 1960, A field study of the Mockingbird’s wing-flashing behavior and its association with foraging, Wilson Bull. 72:346–357.Google Scholar
  87. Hailman, J. P., 1967, Spectral discrimination: An important correction, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 57:281–282.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  88. Hailman, J. P., 1976, Uses of the comparative study of behavior, in: Evolution, Brain, and Behavior: Persistent Problems (R. B. Masterton, W. Hodos, and H. Jerison, eds.), Erlbaum, Hillside, New Jersey, pp. 13–22.Google Scholar
  89. Hailman, J. P., 1977, Optical Signals: Animai Communication and Light, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.Google Scholar
  90. Hailman, J. P., 1979, Environmental light and conspicuous colors, in: The Behavioral Significance of Color (E. H. Burtt, Jr., ed.), Garland STPM Press, New York, pp. 289–354.Google Scholar
  91. Hall, B. P., Moreau, R. E., and Galbraith, I. C. J., 1966, Polymorphism and parallelism in the African bush-shrikes of the genus MaIaconotus (including Chlorophoneus), Ibis 108:161–182.Google Scholar
  92. Hamilton, T. H., 1961, On the functions and causes of sexual dimorphism in breeding plumage of North American species of warblers and orioles, Am. Nat. 95:121–123.Google Scholar
  93. Hamilton, T. H., and Barth, R. H., Jr., 1962, The biological significance of seasonal change in male plumage appearance in some New World migratory species, Am. Nat. 96:129–144.Google Scholar
  94. Hamilton, W. D., and Zuk, M., 1982, Heritable true fitness and bright birds: A role for parasites?, Science 218:384–387.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. Hamilton, W. J. III, 1973, Life’s Color Code, McGraw-Hill, New York.Google Scholar
  96. Hamilton, W. J. III, and Peterman, R. M., 1971, Countershading in the colourful reef fish Chaetodon Junuia: Concealment, communication, or both?, Anim. Behav. 19:357–364.Google Scholar
  97. Hansen, A. J., and Rohwer, S., 1986, Coverable badges and resource defence in birds, Anim. Behav. 34:69–76.Google Scholar
  98. Hardy, J. W., 1967, Evolutionary and ecological relationships between three species of blackbirds (Icteridae) in central Mexico, Evolution 21:196–197.Google Scholar
  99. Hardy, J. W., and Dickerman, R. W., 1965, Relationships between two forms of Redwinged Blackbirds in Mexico, Living Bird 4:107–130.Google Scholar
  100. Harvey, P. H., 1986, Birds, bands, and better broods?, Trends Ecol. Evol. 1:8–9.Google Scholar
  101. Harvey, P. H., and Greenwood, P. H., 1978, Anti-predator defence strategies: Some evolutionary problems, in: Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies, eds.), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 129–151.Google Scholar
  102. Hilborn, R., and Stearns, S. C., 1982, On inference in ecology and evolutionary biology: The problem of multiple causes, Acta Biotheor. 31:145–164.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  103. Hill, G. E., 1988, The function of delayed plumage maturation in male Black-headed Grosbeaks, Auk 105:1–10.Google Scholar
  104. Hinde, R. A., 1956, A comparative study of the courtship of certain finches (Fringillidae), Ibis 98:1–23.Google Scholar
  105. Hingston, R. W. G., 1933, The Meaning of Animal Colour and Adornment, E. Arnold, London.Google Scholar
  106. Holyoak, D. T., 1973, Significance of colour dimorphism in Polynesian populations of Egretta sacra, Ibis 115:419–420.Google Scholar
  107. Houde, A. E., 1987, Mate choice based on naturally occurring color-pattern variation in a guppy population, Evolution 41:1–10.Google Scholar
  108. Huxley, J. S., 1938, Threat and warning coloration in birds, with a general discussion of the biological functions of color, in: Proceedings of the Eighth International Ornithological Congress, F. C. R. Jourdain, ed., The University Press, Oxford, pp. 430–455.Google Scholar
  109. Huxley, J. S., 1955, Morphism in birds, Acta Int Ornithol. Congr. XI, July 1934, A. Portman and E. Sutter, eds., Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel and Stuttgart, Switzerland, pp. 309–328.Google Scholar
  110. Immelman, K., 1972, The influence of early experience upon the development of social behaviour in estrildine finches in: Proceedings of the XV International Ornithological Congress August 30–September 5, 1970, (K. H. Voous, ed.), E. J. Bull, Leiden, Netherlands, pp. 316–338.Google Scholar
  111. Immelman, K., 1975, The evolutionary significance of early experience, in: Function and Evolution in Behaviour (G. Baerends, C. Beer, and A. Manning, eds.), Clarendon, Oxford, pp. 243–253.Google Scholar
  112. Jackson, W. M., Rohwer, S., and Winnegrad, R. L., 1988, Status signaling is absent within age-and-sex classes of Harris’ Sparrows, Auk 105:424–427.Google Scholar
  113. Janetos, A. C., 1980, Strategies of female choice: A theoretical analysis. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 7:107–112.Google Scholar
  114. Järvi, T., and Bakken, M., 1984, The function of the variation in the breast stripe of the great tit, Anim. Behav. 32:590–596.Google Scholar
  115. Johnson, N. K., and Brush, A. H., 1972, Analysis of polymorphism in the Sooty-capped Bush Tanager, Syst. Zool. 21:245–262.Google Scholar
  116. Jones, J. S., 1985, The heritability of fitness: Bad news for good genes?, Trends Ecol. Evol. 2:35–38.Google Scholar
  117. Kear, J., 1970, The adaptive radiation of parental care in waterfowl, in: Social Behaviour in Birds and Mammals: Essays on the Social Ethology of Animals and Man (J. H. Crook, ed.), Academic, London, pp. 357–391.Google Scholar
  118. Ketterson, E. D., 1979, Aggressive behavior in wintering dark-eyed juncos: Determinants of dominance and their possible relation to geographic variation in the sex ratio, Wilson Bull. 91:371–383.Google Scholar
  119. Kikkawa, J., 1961, Social behavior of the white-eye Zosterops lateralis in winter flocks, Ibis 103:428–442.Google Scholar
  120. Kilham, L., 1974, Early breeding season behavior of Downy Woodpeckers, Wilson Bull. 86:407–418.Google Scholar
  121. Kilham, L., 1978, Sexual similarity of Red-headed Woodpeckers and possible explanations based on fall territorial behavior, Wilson Bull. 90:285–287.Google Scholar
  122. Kiltie, R. A., 1988, Countershading: Universally deceptive or deceptively universal?, Trends Ecol. Evol. 3:21–24.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  123. King, J. R., 1980, Energetics of avain moult, in: Acta XVII Congr. Internati. Ornithol., R. Nöhring, ed., Verlag der Deutschen Ornithologen Gesellschaft, Berlin, pp. 312–317.Google Scholar
  124. Kirkpatrick, M., 1982, Sexual selection and the evolution of female choice, Evolution. 36:1–12.Google Scholar
  125. Kirkpatrick, M., 1987, Sexual selection by female choice in polygynous animals, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:43–70.Google Scholar
  126. Knapton, R. W., and Krebs, J. R., 1976, Dominance hierarchies in winter Song Sparrows, Condor 78:567–569.Google Scholar
  127. Kodric-Brown, A., 1985, Female preference and sexual selection for male coloration in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata), Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 17:199–206.Google Scholar
  128. Kodric-Brown, A., and Brown J. H., 1984, Truth in advertising: The kinds of traits favored by sexual selection, Am. Nat. 124:309–323.Google Scholar
  129. Kondrashov, A. S., 1984, Deleterious mutations as an evolutionary factor. I. The advantage of recombination, Genet. Res. 44:199–217.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  130. Krebs, J. R., 1979, Bird colours, Nature (Lond.) 282:14–16.Google Scholar
  131. Krebs, J. R., 1982, Territorial defence in the Great Tit (Parus major): Do residents always win?, Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 11:185–194.Google Scholar
  132. Kushlan, J. A., 1977, The significance of plumage colour in the formation of feeding aggregations of ciconiiforms, Ibis 119:361–364.Google Scholar
  133. Lack, D., 1939, The behaviour of the robin. I, II. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. A 109:169–178.Google Scholar
  134. Lack, D., 1954, The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers, Clarendon, Oxford.Google Scholar
  135. Lack, D., 1965, The Life of the Robin, Collins, London.Google Scholar
  136. Lack, D., 1966, Population Studies of Birds, Clarendon, Oxford.Google Scholar
  137. Lack, D., 1968, Ecological Adaptations for Breeding in Birds, Methuen, London.Google Scholar
  138. Lack, D., 1970, The endemic ducks of remote islands, Wildfowl 5:5–10.Google Scholar
  139. Lande, R., 1981, Models of speciation by sexual selection on polygenic traits, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:3721–3725.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  140. LeCroy, M., 1981, The genus Paradisaea display and evolution, Am. Mus. Nov. 2714:1–52.Google Scholar
  141. Lewis, D. M., 1972, Importance of face-mask in sexual recognition and territorial behavior in the yellowthroat, Jack-Pine Warbler 50:98–109.Google Scholar
  142. Loehle, C., 1987, Hypothesis testing in ecology: Psychological aspects and the importance of theory maturation, Q. Rev. Biol. 62:397–409.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  143. Lorenz, K., 1962, The function of colour in coral reef fishes, Proc. R. Inst. Gr. Br. 39:282–296.Google Scholar
  144. Lorenz, K., 1966, On Aggression, Harcourt, Brace, and World, New York.Google Scholar
  145. Lowther, J. K., 1961, Polymorphism in the White-throated Sparrow, Zonotrichia a Jbicollis (Gmelin), Can. J. Zool. 39:281–292.Google Scholar
  146. Lyon, B. E., and Motgomerie, R. D., 1985, Conspicuous plumage of birds: Sexual selection or unprofitable prey? Anim. Behav. 33:1038–1040.Google Scholar
  147. Lyon, B. E., and Motgomerie, R. D., 1986, Delayed plumage maturation in passerine birds: Reliable signaling by subordinate males?, Evolution 40:604–615.Google Scholar
  148. Lythgoe, J. N., 1979, The Ecology of Vision, Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
  149. Manning, J. T., 1984, Males and the advantage of sex, J. Theor. Biol. 108:215–220.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  150. Marier, P., 1955, Studies of fighting in chaffinches. 2. The effect on dominance relations of disguising females as males, Br. J. Anim. Behav. 3:137–146.Google Scholar
  151. Martin, S. G., 1970, The agonistic behavior of Varied Thrush (Ixoreus naevius) in winter assemblages, Condor 72:452–459.Google Scholar
  152. Maynard Smith, J., 1982, Evolution and the Theory of Games, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
  153. Maynard Smith, J., 1985, Sexual selection, handicaps, and true fitness, J. Theor. Biol. 115:1–8.Google Scholar
  154. Mayr, E., 1942, Systematics and the Origin of Species, Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
  155. Mayr, E., 1965, Animal Species and Evolution, Belknap Press-Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
  156. Mayr, E., 1972, Sexual selection and natural selection, in: Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man 1871–1971 (B. Campbell, ed.), Aldine, Chicago, pp. 87–104.Google Scholar
  157. McKaye, K. R., Kocher, T., Reinthal, P., Harrison, R., and Kornfield, I., 1984, Genetic evidence for allopatric and sympatric differentiation among color morphs of a Lake Malawi cichlid fish, Evolution 38:215–219.Google Scholar
  158. Mock, D. W., 1981, White-dark polymorphism in herons, in: Proceedings of the First Welder Wildlife Symposium, pp. 145-161.Google Scholar
  159. Monroe, B. L., Jr., 1964, Wing-flashing in the red-backed scrub-robin, Erythropygia zamhesiana, Auk 81:91–92.Google Scholar
  160. Montgomerie, R. D., and B. E. Lyon, 1986, Does longevity influence the evolution of delayed plumage maturation in passerine birds?, Am. Nat. 128:930–936.Google Scholar
  161. Moodie, G. E. E., 1972, Predation, natural selection, and adaptation in an unusual Threespined Stickleback, Heredity 28:155–167.Google Scholar
  162. Moreau, R. E., 1960, Conspectus and classification of the Ploceine weaverbirds, Ihis. 102:298–321.Google Scholar
  163. Moreau, R. E., 1966, The Bird Faunas of Africa and Its Islands, Academic, London.Google Scholar
  164. Morony, J. J., Bock, W. J., and Farrand, J., 1975, Reference List of Birds of the World, Department of Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
  165. Morton, E. S., 1976, The adaptive significance of dull coloration in yellow warblers, Condor 78:423.Google Scholar
  166. Moynihan, M., 1960, Some adaptations which help to promote gregariousness, in: Proceedings of the XII International Ornithological Congress, June 5–12, 1958, G. Bergman, K. O. Donner, and L. von Haartman, eds., Tilgmann Kirjapaino, Helsinki, Finland, pp. 523–541.Google Scholar
  167. Murton, R. K. and Westwood, N. J., 1977, Avian Breeding Cycles, Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
  168. Murton, R. K., Westwood, N. J., and Thearle, R. J. P., 1973, Polymorphism and the evolution of a continuous breeding season in the pigeon, Columbia livia, J. Beprod. Fertil. Suppl. 19:563–577.Google Scholar
  169. Nur, N., and Hasson, O., 1984, Phenotypic plasticity and the handicap principle, J. Theor. Biol. 110:275–297.Google Scholar
  170. Oberholser, H. C., 1974, Bird Life of Texas, University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas.Google Scholar
  171. O’Donald, P., 1959, Possibility of assortative mating in the Arctic Skua, Nature (Lond.) 183:1210.Google Scholar
  172. O’Donald, P., 1980, Genetic Models of Sexual Selection, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
  173. O’Donald, P., Davis, J. W. F., and Broad, R. A., 1974, Variation in assortative mating in two colonies of Arctic Skuas, Nature (Lond.) 252:700–701.Google Scholar
  174. Odum, E. P., 1942, Annual cycle of the Black-capped Chickadee. 3, Auk 59:499–531.Google Scholar
  175. Olson, S. L., 1982, A critique of Cracraft’s classification of birds, Auk 99:733–739.Google Scholar
  176. Orians, G. H., and Christman, G. M., 1968, A comparative study of the behavior of Red-winged, Tricolored, and Yellow-headed Blackbirds. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 84:1–81.Google Scholar
  177. Parker, G. A., 1982, Phenotype-limited evolutionarily stable strategies, in: Current Problems in Sociobiology (King’s College Sociobiology Group, eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 173–201.Google Scholar
  178. Parker, G. A., 1983, Mate quality and mating decisions, in: Mate Choice (P. Bateson, ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 141–166.Google Scholar
  179. Parrish, J. W., Ptacek, J. A., and Will, K. L., 1984, The detection of near-ultraviolet light by nonmigratory and migratory birds, Auk 101:53–58.Google Scholar
  180. Parsons, J., and Baptista, L. F. 1980, Crown color and dominance in the White-crowned Sparrow, Auk 97:807–815.Google Scholar
  181. Partridge, L., 1980, Mate choice increases a component of offspring fitness in fruit flies, Nature (Lond.) 283:290–291.Google Scholar
  182. Paulson, D. R., 1973, Predator polymorphism and apostatic selection, Evolution 27:269–277.Google Scholar
  183. Payne, R. B., 1967, Interspecific communication signals in parasitic birds, Am. Nat. 101:363–375.Google Scholar
  184. Payne, R. B., 1982, Ecological consequences of song matching: Breeding success and intraspecific song mimicry in Indigo Buntings, Ecology 63:401–411.Google Scholar
  185. Peek, F. W., 1972, An experimental study of the territorial function of vocal and visual display in the male Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), Anim. Behav. 20:112–118.Google Scholar
  186. Peiponen, V. A., 1960, Verhaltensstudien am blaukehlchen, Ornis Fenn. 37:69–83.Google Scholar
  187. Peterman, R. M., 1971, A possible function of coloration in coral reef fishes, Copeia. 1971:330–331.Google Scholar
  188. Peterson, R. T., 1980, A Field Guide to the Birds, Houghton-Mifflin, Boston.Google Scholar
  189. Pierotti, R., 1987, Isolating mechanisms in seabirds, Evolution 41:559–570.Google Scholar
  190. Platt, J. R., 1964, Strong inference, Science 146:347–353.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  191. Price, T. D., 1984, Sexual selection on body size, territory and plumage variables in a population of Darwin’s finches, Evolution 38:327–341.Google Scholar
  192. Ratcliffe, L. M., and Boag, P. T., 1987, Effects of colour bands on male competition and sexual attractiveness in zebra finches (PoephiJa guttata), Can. J. Zool. 65:333–336.Google Scholar
  193. Read, A. F., 1987, Comparative evidence supports the Hamilton and Zuk hypothesis on parasites and sexual selection, Nature (Lond.) 328:68–70.Google Scholar
  194. Remington, C. L., 1968, Suture-zones of hybrid interaction between recently joined biotas, Evol. Biol. 2:321–428.Google Scholar
  195. Remsen, J. V., Jr., 1984, High incidence of “leapfrog” pattern of geographic variation in Andean birds: Implication for the speciation process, Science 224:171–173.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  196. Ricklefs, R. E., and Cox, G. W., 1972, Taxon cycles in the West Indian avifauna, Am. Nat. 106:195–219.Google Scholar
  197. Ridley, M., 1983, The Explanation of Organic Diversity, Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
  198. Rockwell, R. F., Findlay, C. S., Cooke, F., and Smith, J. A., 1985, Life history studies of the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens). IV. The selective value of plumage polymorphism: Net viability, the timing of maturation, and breeding propensity, Evolution 39:178–189.Google Scholar
  199. Rohwer, S., 1975, The social significance of avian winter plumage variability, Evolution 29:593–610.Google Scholar
  200. Rohwer, S., 1982, The evolution of reliable and unreliable badges of fighting ability, Am. Zool. 22:531–546.Google Scholar
  201. Rohwer, S., 1983, Formalizing the avoidance-image hypothesis: Critique of an earlier prediction, Auk 100:971–974.Google Scholar
  202. Rohwer, S., 1985, Dyed birds achieve higher social status than controls in Harris’ sparrows, Anim. Behav. 34:1325–1331.Google Scholar
  203. Rohwer, S., 1986 A previously unknown plumage of first-year Indigo Buntings and theories of delayed plumage maturation, Auk 103:281–292.Google Scholar
  204. Rohwer, S., and Butcher, G. S., 1988, Winter versus summer explanations of delayed plumage maturation in temperate passerine birds, Am. Nat. 131:556–572.Google Scholar
  205. Rohwer, S., and Ewald, P. W., 1981, The cost of dominance and advantage of subordination in a badge signaling system, Evolution 35:441–454.Google Scholar
  206. Rohwer, S., and Niles, D. M., 1979, The subadult plumage of male Purple Martins: Variability, female mimicry, and recent evolution, Z. Tierpsychol. 51:282–300.Google Scholar
  207. Rohwer, S., and Paulson, D. R., 1987, The avoidance-image hypothesis and color polymorphism in Buteo hawks, Ornis Scand. 18:285–290.Google Scholar
  208. Rohwer, S., Fretwell, S. D., and Niles, D. M., 1980, Delayed maturation in passerine plumages and the deceptive aquisition of resources, Am. Nat. 115:400–437.Google Scholar
  209. Rohwer, S., Ewald, P. W., and Rohwer, F. C., 1981, Variation in size, appearance, and dominance within and among the sex and age classes of Harris’ Sparrows, J. Field Ornithol. 52:291–303.Google Scholar
  210. Rohwer, S., Klein, W. P. Jr., and Heard, S., 1983, Delayed plumage maturation and the presumed prealternate molt in American Redstarts, Wilson Bull. 95:199–208.Google Scholar
  211. Røskaft, E., and Järvi, T., 1983, Male plumage colour and mate choice of female Pied Flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca, Ibis 125:396–400.Google Scholar
  212. Røskaft, E., and Rohwer, S., 1987, An experimental study of the function of the epaulettes and the black body colour of male red-winged blackbirds, Anim. Behav. 35:1070–1077.Google Scholar
  213. Røskaft, E., Järvi, T., Nyholm, N. E. I., Virolainen, M., Winkel, W., and Zang, H., 1986, Geographic variation in secondary sexual plumage colour characteristics of the male Pied Flycatcher, Ornis Scand. 17:293–298.Google Scholar
  214. Rowland, W. J., 1982, The effects of male nuptial coloration on stickleback aggression: A reexamination, Behaviour 80:118–126.Google Scholar
  215. Samson, F. B., 1977, Social dominance in winter flocks of Cassin’s Finch, Wilson Bull. 89:57–66.Google Scholar
  216. Schutz, F., 1965, Sexuelle pragung bei Anatiden, Z. Tierpsychol. 22:50–103.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  217. Seiander, R. K., 1965, On mating systems and sexual selection, Am. Nat. 99:129–141.Google Scholar
  218. Selander, R. K., 1972, Sexual selection and dimorphism in birds, in: Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man 1871–1971 (B. Campbell, ed.), Aldine, Chicago, pp. 180–230.Google Scholar
  219. Selander, R. K., and Hunter, D. K., 1960, On the function of wing-flashing in mockingbirds, Wilson Bull. 7:341–345.Google Scholar
  220. Semler, D. E., 1971, Some aspects of adaptation in a polymorphism for breeding colours in the Threespine Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), J. Zool. 165:291–302.Google Scholar
  221. Shield, W. M., 1977, The social significance of avian winter plumage variability: A comment, Evolution 31:905–906.Google Scholar
  222. Sibley, C. G., 1957, The evolutionary and taxonomic significance of sexual dimorphism and hybridization in birds, Condor 59:166–191.Google Scholar
  223. Sibley, C. G., and Ahlquist, J. E., 1983, Phylogeny and classificaion of birds based on the data of DNA-DNA hybridization, Current Ornithol. 1:245–292.Google Scholar
  224. Skutch, A. F., 1940, Some aspects of Central American bird-life, Sci. Mthly. 51:409–418, 500-511.Google Scholar
  225. Skutch, A. F., 1957, The resident wood warblers of Central America, in: The Warblers of America (L. Griscom and A. Sprunt, eds.), Devin-Adair, New York, pp. 275–285.Google Scholar
  226. Smith, D. G., 1972, The role of the epaulets in the Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) social system, Behaviour 41:251–268.Google Scholar
  227. Smith, N. G., 1966, Evolution of some arctic gulls (Lams): An experimental study of isolating mechanisms, Ornith. Monogr. (AOU) 4:1–99.Google Scholar
  228. Smith, S. M., 1980, Henpecked males: The general pattern in monogamy?, J. Field Ornithol. 51:55–64.Google Scholar
  229. Stearns, S. C., 1976, Life-history tactics: A review of the ideas, Q. Rev. Biol. 51:3–47.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  230. Stephenson, A. G., and Bertin, R. I., 1983, Male competition, female choice, and sexual selection in plants, in: Pollination Biology (L. Real, ed.), Academic, New York, pp. 109–149.Google Scholar
  231. Studd, M. V., and Robertson, R. J., 1985, Life span, competition, and delayed plumage maturation in male passerines: The breeding threshold hypothesis, Am. Nat. 126:101–115.Google Scholar
  232. Thompson, W. L., 1960, Agonistic behavior in the House Finch. II. Factors in aggressiveness and sociality, Condor 62:378–402.Google Scholar
  233. Thorneycroft, H. G., 1975, A cytogenetic study of the White-throated Sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis, Evolution 29:611–621.Google Scholar
  234. Thornhill, R., 1980, Mate choice in Hylobittacus apicalis (Insecta: Mecoptera) and its relation to some models of female choice, Evolution 34:519–538.Google Scholar
  235. Tordoff, H. B., 1954, Social organization and behavior in a flock of captive, nonbreeding Red Crossbills, Condor 56:346–358.Google Scholar
  236. Trivers, R. L., 1972, Parental investment and sexual selection, in: Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man 1871–1971 (B. Campbell, ed.)., Aldine, Chicago, pp. 136–179.Google Scholar
  237. Verner, J., and Willson, M. F., 1969, Mating systems, sexual dimorphism, and the role of North American passerine birds in the nesting cycle, Ornithol. Monogr. (AOU) 9: 1–76.Google Scholar
  238. Wallace, A. R., 1889, Darwinism: An Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection with Some of Its Applications, Macmillan, London.Google Scholar
  239. Walsberg, G. E., 1982, Coat color, solar heat gain, and conspicuousness in the Phainopepla, Auk 99:495–502.Google Scholar
  240. Walsberg, G. E., 1983, Ecological energetics: What are the questions?, in: Perspectives in Ornithology (A. H. Brush and G. A. Clark, eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 135–158.Google Scholar
  241. Walsberg, G. E., Campbell, G. S., and King, J. R., 1978, Animal coat color and radiative heat gain: A re-evaluation, J. Comp. Phys. 126:211–222.Google Scholar
  242. Watson, G. E., 1962, Sympatry in palearctic Alectoris partridges, Evolution 16:11–19.Google Scholar
  243. Watt, D. J., 1986a, A comparative study of status signalling in sparrows (genus Zonotrichia), Anim. Behav. 34:1–15.Google Scholar
  244. Watt, D. J., 1986b, Relationship of plumage variability, size and sex to social dominance in Harris’ sparrows, Anim. Behav. 34:16–27.Google Scholar
  245. Watt, D. J., Ralph, C. J., Atkinson, C. T., 1984, The role of plumage polymorphism in dominance relationships of the White-throated Sparrow, Auk 101:110–120.Google Scholar
  246. Weldon, P. J., and Burghardt, G. M., 1984, Deception divergence and sexual selection, Z. Tierpsychol. 65:89–102.Google Scholar
  247. West-Eberhard, M. J., 1983, Sexual selection, social competition, and speciation, Q. Rev. Biol. 58:155–183.Google Scholar
  248. Whitfield, D. P., 1986, Plumage variability and territoriality in breeding turnstone Arenaria interpres: Status signalling or individual recognition?, Anim. Behav. 34:1471–1482.Google Scholar
  249. Whitfield, D. P., 1987, Plumage variability, status signalling and individual recognition in avian flocks, Trends Ecol. Evol. 2:13–18.Google Scholar
  250. Williams, E. E., and Rand, A. S., 1977, Species recognition, dewlap function, and faunal size, Am. Zool. 17:265–274.Google Scholar
  251. Williams, G. C., 1966, Adaptation and Natural Selection. A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
  252. Willis, E. O., 1972, The behavior of spotted antbirds, Ornithol. Monogr. (AOU) 10:1–162.Google Scholar
  253. Witherby, H. F., Jourdain, F. C. R., Ticehurst, N. F., and Tucker, B. W., 1943, The Handbook of British Birds, Vol. I, Crows to Firecrest, Witherby, London.Google Scholar
  254. Wolf, L. L., 1969, Female territoriality in a tropical hummingbird, Auk 86:490–504.Google Scholar
  255. Wolf, L. L., 1975, Female territoriality in the Purple-throated Carib, Auk 92:511–522.Google Scholar
  256. Wunderle, J. M., Jr., 1981, An analysis of a morph ratio cline in the Bananaquit (Coereha flaveola) on Grenada, West Indies, Evolution 35:333–344.Google Scholar
  257. Wunderle, J. M., Jr., 1983, A shift in the morph ratio cline in the Bananaquit of Grenada, West Indies, Condor 85:365–367.Google Scholar
  258. Zahavi, A., 1975, Mate selection—A selection for a handicap, J. Theor. Biol. 53:205–214.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  259. Zahavi, A., 1977, The cost of honesty, J. Theor. Biol. 67:603–605.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  260. Zahavi, A., 1981, Natural selection, sexual selection, and the selection of signals, in: Evolution Today (G. G. E. Scudder and J. L. Reveal, eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Systematic and Evolutionary Biology, July 17–24, 1980, Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, pp. 133–138.Google Scholar
  261. Zumpe, D., 1965, Laboratory observations on the aggressive behaviour of some butterfly fishes, Z. Tierpsychol. 22:226–236.PubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1989

Authors and Affiliations

  • Gregory S. Butcher
    • 1
  • Sievert Rohwer
    • 1
  1. 1.Department of Zoology and Burke MuseumUniversity of WashingtonSeattleUSA

Personalised recommendations