Abstract
From the moment of birth the child is embedded in a large social network, the fabric of which is made up of many people, functions, and situations (Lewis & Feiring, 1978, 1979). This network includes, among others, parents, siblings, relatives, teachers, and peers. For the purposes of the present discussion, we shall focus on that part of the social network known as the family and will concentrate on the changing demographic characteristics of the family in the United States and the implications that these changing family characteristics have for the development of the child.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Ainsworth, M. D. S. Object relation, dependency and attachment: A theoretical review of the infant—mother relationship. Child Development, 1969, 40, 969–1026.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978.
Aug, R. G., & Bright, T. A study of wed and unwed motherhood in adolescents and young adults. Journal of the Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1970, 9, 577–592.
Ban, P., & Lewis, M. Mothers and fathers, girls and boys: Attachment behavior in the one-year-old. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1974, 20 (3), 195–204.
Bane, M. J. Marital disruption and the lives of children. Journal of Social Issues, 1976, 32 (1), 103–117.
Barclay, A. G., & Cusumano, D. Father-absence, cross-sex identify, and field-dependent behavior in male adolescents. Child Development, 1967, 38, 243–250.
Barret, R. Self-esteem and maternal behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1976.
Belmont, L., & Marolla, F. A. Birth order, family size and intelligence. Science, 1973, 182, 1096–1101.
Belsky, J. A family analysis of parental influence on infant exploratory competence. In F. Pedersen (Ed.), The father—infant relationship: Observational studies in a family context. New York: Praeger, 1980.
Belsky, J., & Steinberg, L. D. The effects of day care: A critical review. Child development, 1978, 49, 929–949.
Berg, I., Fearnly, W., Palerson, M., Pollock, G., & Valiance, R. Birth order and family size of approved school boys. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1967, 113, 793–800.
Biller, H. B. A note on father-absence and masculine development in young lower-class Negro and white boys. Child Development, 1968, 39, 1003–1006.
Blanchard, R. W., & Biller, H. B. Father availability and academic performance among third-grade boys. Developmental Psychology, 1971, 4, 301–305.
Blehar, M. C. Anxious attachment and defensive reactions associated with day care. Child Development, 1974, 45, 683–692.
Borod, J., Grossman, J. C., & Eisenman, R. Extraversion, anxiety, creativity and grades. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1971, 33, 1106.
Bossard, J. H., & Boll, E. S. The sociology of child development. New York: Harper and Row, 1966.
Bowlby, J. Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books, 1969.
Bradwein, R. A., Brown, C. A., & Fox, E. M. Women and children last: The social situation of divorced mothers and their families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1974, 36, 498–514.
Bulatao, R. A., & Arnold, F. Relationships between the value and cost of children and fertility: Cross-cu.tural evidence. Paper prepared for the General Conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population, Mexico City, August 8–13, 1977.
Caldwell, B. M., Wright, C. M., Honig, A. S., & Tannenbaum, J. Infant care and attachment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1970, 40, 397–412.
Clarke-Stewart, A. Interactions between mothers and their young children: Characteristics and consequences. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 38/6–7, Serial No. 153 (1973).
Clarke-Stewart, K. A. And daddy makes three: The father’s impact on mother and young child. Child Development, 1978, 49 (2), 466–478.
Clarke-Stewart, K. A. The father’s contribution to children’s cognitive and social development in early childhood. In F. A. Pedersen (Ed.), The father—infant relationship: Observational studies in the family setting. New York: Praeger, 1980.
Coates, D. L., & Lewis, M. Relationships between cognitive behavior at six years and mother—infant interaction at three months. Paper presented at the International Conference on Infant Studies, New Haven, Connecticut, April 1980.
Cochran, M. E. A comparison of group day and family child-rearing patterns in Sweden. Child Development, 1977, 48, 702–707.
Cohen, S. E. Maternal employment and mother—child interaction. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1978, 24, 189–197.
Colletta, N. D. The influence of support systems on the maternal behavior of young mothers. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston, Massachusetts, April 1981.
Crockenberg, S. Infant irritability, mother responsiveness, and social support influences on the security of infant-mother attachment. Child Development, 1981, 52, 857–865.
Deutch, M., & Brown, B. Social influences in Negro-white intelligence differences. Journal of Social Issues, 1964, 20, 24–35.
Douglas, J. W. B., & Blomfield, J. M. Children under five. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958.
Douglas, J. W. B., & Simpson, H. R. Height in relation to puberty, family size and social class. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, 1964, 40, 20–35.
Dunn, J., and Kendrick, C. Interaction between young siblings in the context of family relationships. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum, The child and its family: The genesis of behavior (Vol. 2 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1979.
Dunn, J., & Kendrick, C. The arrival of a sibling: Changes in patterns of interaction between mother and first-born child. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1980, 21 (2), 119–132.
Easterbrooks, M. A., & Lamb, M. E. The relationship between quality of infant-mother attachment and infant competence in initial encounters with peers. Child Development, 1979, 50, 380–387.
Espenshade, T. J. The value and cost of children. Population Bulletin 32: 1 (1977).
Eysenck, H. J., & Cookson, D. Personality in primary school children: Family background. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1970, 40, 117–131.
Farran, D., & Ramey, C. Infant day care and attachment behaviors toward mothers and teachers. Child Development, 1977, 48, 1112–1116.
Fein, G., & Clarke-Stewart, A. Day care in context. New York: Wiley, 1973.
Feiring, C. The preliminary development of a social systems model of early infant—mother attachment. Paper presented at the meetings of the Eastern Psychological Association, New York, April 1976.
Feiring, C., & Lewis, M. The child as a member of the family system. Behavioral Science, 1978, 23, 225–233.
Feldman, S. S. The impact of day care on one aspect of children’s social emotional behavior. Paper presented at the meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, San Francisco, September 1974.
Glick, C. P., & Norton, A. J. Marrying, divorcing, and living together in the U. S. today. Population Bulletin, 1977, 32, 5.
Glueck, S., & Glueck, E. Unraveling juvenile delinquency. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950.
Golden, M., Rosenblut, L., Grossi, M., Policare, H., Freeman, H., & Brownlee, E. The New York City Infant Day Care Study. New York: Medical and Health Research Association of New York City, 1978.
Hansen, D. A., & Hill, R. Families under stress. In Christensen handbook of marriage and the family. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964.
Harlow, H., & Harlow, M. K. Age mate or peer affectional system. In D. S. Lehrman, R. Hinde, and E. Shaw, Advances in the study of behavior (Vol. 2 ). New York: Academic Press, 1969.
Hetherington, E. M. Effects of paternal absence in sex-typed behaviors in Negro and white preadolescent males. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 4, 87–91.
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. Play and social interaction in children following divorce. Journal of Social Issues, 1979, 35, 26–42.
Hock, E. Working and nonworking mothers and their infants: A comparative study of maternal caregiving characteristics and infant social behaviors. Merrill -Palmer Quarterly—Behavior and Development, 1980, 26 (2), 79–101.
Hofferth, S. L., & Moore, K. A. Women’s employment and marriage. In R. W. Smith (Ed.), The subtle revolution. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1979.
Hoffman, L. W. Effects of maternal employment on the child—A review of the research. Developmental Psychology, 1972, 10, 204–228.
Hoffman, L. W. Effects of the first child on the woman’s role. In Miller and Newman (Eds.), The first child and family formation. North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, 1977.
Hoffman, L. W. Maternal employment: 1979. American Psychologist, 1979, 34, 859–865.
Hoffman, L. W., & Nye, F. I. Working mothers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974.
Kagan, J. Emergent themes in human development. American Scientist, 1976, 64, 186–196.
Kotelchuck, M. The nature of the child’s tie to his father. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1972.
Lamb, M. E. Effects of stress and cohort on mother– and father–infant interaction. Developmental Psychology, 1976, 12, 425–443.
Lamb, M. E. The role of the father in child development. New York: Wiley, 1976.
Lamb, M. E. Father–infant and mother–infant interaction in the first year of life. Child Development, 1977, 48, 167–181.
Lamb, M. E., Chase-Lansdale, L., & Owen, M. T. The changing American family and its implications for infant social development: The sample case of maternal employment. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The child and its family: Genesis of behavior (Vol. 2 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1979.
Landis, P. H. The families that produce adjusted adolescents. Clearing House, 1955, 29, 537–540.
Leibowitz, A. Education and home production. American Economic Review, 1974, 64 (2), 243–250.
Lewis, M. The social network systems model: Toward a theory of social development. In T. Field (Ed.), Review in human development. New York: Wiley, 1982.
Lewis, M., & Coates, D. L. Mother-infant interactions and cognitive development in twelve-week-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 1980, 3, 95–105.
Lewis, M., & Feiring, C. The child’s social world. In R. M. Lerner and G. D. Spanier (Eds.), Child influence in marital and family interaction: A life-span perspective. New York: Academic Press, 1978.
Lewis, M., & Feiring, C. The child’s social network: Social object, social functions, and their relationship. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The child and its family: The genesis of behavior (Vol. 2 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1979.
Lewis, M., & Feiring, C. Direct and indirect interactions in social relationships. In L. Lipsitt (Ed.), Advances in infancy research (Vol. 1 ). New York: Ablex, 1981.
Lewis, M., & Feiring, C. Some American families at dinner. To appear in L. Laosa and I. Sigel (Eds.), The family as a learning environment (Vol. 1 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1982.
Lewis, M. and Goldberg, S. Perceptual-cognitive development in infancy: A generalized expectancy model as a function of the mother—infant interaction. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1969, 51 (1), 81–100.
Lewis, M., & Rosenblum, L. Friendship and peer relations: The origins of behavior (Vol. 4 ). New York: Wiley, 1975.
Lewis, M., & Rosenblum, L. The child and its family: The genesis of behavior (Vol. 2 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1979.
Lewis, M., & Schaeffer, S. Peer behavior and mother—infant interaction in maltreated children. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The uncommon child: The genesis of behavior (Vol. 3 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1981.
Lewis, M., & Weinraub, M. The father’s role in the infant’s social network. In M. Lamb, The role of the father in child development. New York: Wiley, 1976.
Lewis, M., Young, G., Brooks, J., & Michalson, L. The beginning of friendship. In M. Lewis, M., Feiring, C., & Weinraub, M. The father as a member of the child’s social network. In M. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley, 1981.
Lynn, D. B. The father: His role in child development. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1974.
Marjoribanks, K., & Walberg, H. J. Ordinal position, family environment and mental abilities. Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 95, 77–84.
McCord, J., McCord, W., & Thurber, E. Some effects of paternal absence on male children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1962, 64, 361–369.
Monane, J. H. A sociology of human systems. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967.
Moore, T. Exclusive early mothering and its alternatives: The outcome to adolescence. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 1975, 16, 255–272.
Moskowitz, D., Schwarz, J., & Corsini, D. Initiating day care at three years of age: Effects on attachment. Child Development, 1977, 48, 1271–1276.
Mueller, E. Toddlers + toys = An autonomous social system. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The child and its family: The genesis of behavior (Vol. 2 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1979.
Mueller, E., & Vandell, D. Infant—infant interaction. In Osofsky handbook of infant development. New York: Wiley, 1978.
Murchinson, N. Illustration of the difficulties of some children in one-parent families. In Finer Report of the Committee on One-Parent Families. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1974.
Pedersen, F. A. Mother, father, and infant as an interactive system. Paper presented at the meetings of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, September, 1975.
Pedersen, F. A. Does research on children reared in father-absent families yield information on father influences? The Family Coordinator, 1976, 25, 459–464.
Pedersen, F. A. (Ed.). The father—infant relationship: Observational studies in the family setting. New York: Praeger, 1980.
Pedersen, F. A., & Robson, K. S. Father participation in infancy. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1969, 39, 466–472.
Pedersen, F. A., Yarrow, L. J., Anderson, B. J., & Cain, R. L. Conceptualization of father influences in the infancy period. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum, (Eds.), The child and its family: The genesis of behavior (Vol. 2 ). New York: Plenum Press, 1979.
Pedersen, F. A., Anderson, B. J., & Cain, R. L., Jr. Parent-infant and husband-wife interactions observed at five months. In F. A. Pedersen (Ed.), The father-infant relationship: Observational studies in the family setting. New York: Praeger, 1980.
Pope, H., & Mueller, C. W. The intergenerational transmission of marital instability: Comparisons by race and sex. Journal of Social Issues, 1976, 32 (1), 49–66.
Ramey, C., & Campbell, F. The prevention of developmental retardation in high-risk children. In P. Mittler (Ed.), Research to practice in mental retardation, Vol. 1: Care and intervention. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1977.
Ramey, C., & Smith, B. Assessing the intellectual consequences of early intervention with high-risk infants. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1976, 81, 318–324.
Reed, R. H., & McIntosh, S. Costs of children. In Research Reports, Vol. 2, Commission of Population Growth and the American Future. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972.
Rehberg, R. Q., & Westby, D. L. Parental encouragement, occupation, education, and family size: Artifactual or independent determinants of adolescent educational expectations? Social Forces, 1967, 45, 362–374.
Ricciuti, H. Fear and development of social attachments in the first year of life. In M. Lewis and L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The origins of human behavior: Fear. New York: Wiley, 1974.
Robinson, J. P. How Americans use time: A sociological perspective. New York: Praeger, 1977.
Rosen, B. C. Family structure and value transmission. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1964, 70, 59–76.
Sander, L. The regulation of exchange in the infant-caretaker system and some aspects of the content-content relationship. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (Eds.), Interaction, conversation, and the development of language: The origins of behavior (Vol. 5 ). New York: Wiley, 1977.
Schacter, F. Toddlers with employed mothers. Child Development, 1981, 52, 958–964.
Schaefer, E. S. The ecology of child development: Implications for research and the professions. Paper presented at the meetings of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, September 1974.
Schaffer, H. R., & Emerson, P. E. The development of social attachments in infancy. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1964, 29 (4), 94.
Schwartz, J. C., Stickland, R. G., & Krolick, G. Infant day care: Behavioral effects at preschool age. Developmental Psychology, 1974, 10, 502–506.
Sears, R. K. Relations of early socialization experiences to self concepts and gender role in middle childhood. Child Development, 1970, 41, 267–289.
Spanier, G. B., Lerner, R. M., & Aquilino, W. The study of child-family interactions: A perspective for the future. In R. M. Lerner and G. B. Spanier, Child influences on marital and family interactions: A life-span perspective. New York: Academic Press, 1978.
Sroufe, L. A., & Waters, E. Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Development, 1977, 48, 1184–1199.
Statistical Abstract of the United States, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980.
A Statistical Portrait of Women,in the U.S. Population Report Series P-23, No. 58, 1975.
Suomi, S. J., and Harlow, H. F. The role and reason of peer relationships in rhesus monkeys. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (Eds.), Friendship and peer relations: Origins of behavior (Vol. 4 ). New York: Wiley, 1975.
Svanum, S., & Bringle, R. Evaluation of confluence model variables on IQ and achievement test scores in a sample of 6 to 11 year old children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1980, 72, 427–436.
Taylor, J. Systometrics. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pittsburgh, 1975.
Terhune, K. W. A review of the actual and expected consequences of family size. U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health Publication No. (NIH) 75–779 (1974).
Tuckman, J., & Regan, R. A. Size of family and behavioral problems in children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1967, 3 (1), 151–160.
Turner, R. H. Some family determinants of ambition. Sociology and Social Research, 1962, 46, 397–411.
U.S. Population Bulletin, Marrying, Divorcing and Living Together in the U.S. Today, October 1977.
Von Bertalanffy, L. Robots, men, and minds. New York: Braziller, 1967.
Weinraub, M. The changing role of the father: Implication for sex role development in children. Paper presented at the meetings of the American Psychological Association, Montreal, August 1980.
Zajonc, R. B. Family configuration and intelligence: Variations in aptitude scores parallel trends in family size and the spacing of children. Science, 1976, 192, 227–236.
Zajonc, R. B., & Markus, G. B. Birth order and intellectual development. Psychological Reviews, 1975, 82, 74–88.
Zajonc, R., & Markus, G. B. The birth order puzzle. Paper presented at the meeting of the Conference on the Social Network of the Developing Infant: The Origins of Behavior, Princeton, N.J., May 1977.
Zajonc, R. B., Markus, H., & Markus, G. B. The birth order puzzle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1979, 37, 1325–1341.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1984 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Feiring, C., Lewis, M. (1984). Changing Characteristics of the U.S. Family. In: Lewis, M. (eds) Beyond The Dyad. Genesis of Behavior, vol 4. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-9415-1_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-9415-1_4
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4757-9417-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-9415-1
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive