Abstract
Any really close and thorough examination of the psychological research into the origins of anger and emotional aggression must leave the thoughtful reader somewhat dissatisfied. The literature presents us with occasional inconsistencies and unexpected findings that most of the investigators seem not to have noticed and certainly have not addressed as they focus on the more usual research results. In my view any really adequate account of anger and emotional aggression must deal with these apparent exceptions to the general rule and show how they can be explained by the theoretical scheme. Only then, I believe, will we have a truly far-ranging theory. Hoping to assist in the development of this comprehensive formulation, I will first highlight these matters that seem to be almost entirely neglected by most contemporary analyses of anger, and I will then offer a general theoretical model that can accommodate both the seeming exceptions and the much more frequently reported research results.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abraham, K. (1968). Notes on the psychoanalytic investigation and treatment of manic-depressive insanity and allied conditions. In W. Gaylin (Ed.), The meaning of despair. New York: Science House.
Anderson, C. A. (1989). Temperature and aggression: Ubiquitous effects of heat on occurrence of human violence. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 74–96.
Averill, J. (1982). Anger and aggression: An essay on emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Averill, J. (1983). Studies on anger and aggression: Implications for theories of emotion. American Psychologist, 38, 1145–1160.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Baron, R. A. (1977). Human aggression. New York: Plenum.
Baron, R. A., and Ransberger, V. M. (1978). Ambient temperature and the occurrence of collective violence: The “long hot summer” revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 351–360.
Bell, P. A., and Baron, R. A. (1990). Affect and aggression. In B. S. Moore and A. M. Isen (Eds.), Affect and social behavior (pp. 64–88 ). Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
Berkowitz, L. (1982). Aversive conditions as stimuli to aggression. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 15, pp. 249–288 ). New York: Academic Press.
Berkowitz, L. (1983). Aversively stimulated aggression: Some parallels and differences in research with animals and humans. American Psychologist, 38, 1135–1144.
Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 59–73.
Berkowitz, L. (1990). On the formation and regulation of anger and aggression: A cognitive-neoassociationistic analysis. American Psychologist, 45, 494–503.
Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Berkowitz, L., Cochran, S., and Embree, M. (1981). Physical pain and the goal of aversively stimulated aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 687–700.
Berkowitz, L., and Troccoli, B. T. (1990). Feelings, direction of attention, and expressed evaluations of others. Cognition and Emotion, 4, 305–325.
Blumberg, S. H., and Izard, C. E. (1986). Discriminating patterns of emotions in 10- and 11year-old children’s anxiety and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 852–857.
Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148.
Bower, G. H., and Cohen, P. (1982). Emotional influences in memory and thinking: Data and theory. In S. Fiske and M. Clark (Eds.), Affect and social cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Campos, J. J., Barrett, K. C., Lamb, M. E., Goldsmith, H. H., and Stenberg, C. (1983). Socioemotional development. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 783–915 ). ( 4th ed ). New York: Wiley.
Carlsmith, J. M., and Anderson, C. A. (1979). Ambient temperature and the occurrence of collective violence: A new analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 337–344.
Davitz, J. R. (1952). The effects of previous training on postfrustration behavior. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 309–315.
Finman, R., and Berkowitz, L. (1989). Some factors influencing the effect of depressed mood on anger and overt hostility toward another. Journal of Research in Personality, 23, 70–84.
Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
Geen, R. G. (1968). Effects of frustration, attack, and prior training in aggressiveness upon aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 316–321.
Griffitt, W. (1970). Environmental effects on interpersonal affective behavior: Ambient effective temperature and attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 240–244.
Hynan, D. J., and Grush, J. E. (1986). Effects of impulsivity, depression, provocation, and time on aggressive behavior. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 158–171.
Lang, P. J. (1979). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology, 16, 495–512.
Lang, P. J. (1984). Cognition in emotion: Concept and action. In C. E. Izard, J. Kagan, and R.B. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotions, cognition and behavior (pp. 192–226 ). Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lazarus, R. and Smith, C. A. (1988). Knowledge and appraisal in the cognition-emotion relationship. Cognition and Emotion, 2, 281–300.
Leventhal, H. (1980). Toward a comprehensive theory of emotion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 139–207 ). New York: Academic Press.
Miller, I., Sr Norman, W. (1979). Learned helplessness in humans: A review and attribution theory model. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 93–118.
Nisbett, R. E., and Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259.
Norman, D. A., and Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, and D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation (Vol. 4, pp. 1–18). New York: Plenum.
Poznanski, E., and Zrull, J. P. (1970). Childhood depression: Clinical characteristics of overtly depressed children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 23, 8–15.
Rosenblatt, P. C., Jackson, D. A., and Walsh, R. P. (1972). Coping with anger and aggression in mourning. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 3, 271–284.
Rotton, J., Barry, T., Frey, J., Soler, E. (1978). Air pollution and interpersonal attraction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 8, 57–71.
Rotton, J., and Frey, J. (1985). Air pollution, weather, and violent crime: Concomitant timeseries analysis of archival data. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1207–1220.
Rotton, J., Frey, J., Barry, T., Milligan, M., and Fitzpatrick, M. (1979). The air pollution experience and physical aggression. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9, 397–412.
Rule, B. G., Taylor, B., and Dobbs, A. R. (1987). Priming effects of heat on aggressive thoughts. Social Cognition, 5, 131–144.
Schachter, S., and Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 65, 379–399.
Scherer, K. R., Wallbott, H. G., and Summerfield, A. B. (1986). Experiencing emotion: A cross-cultural study. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., and O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1061–1086.
Smith, C. A., and Ellsworth, P. C. (1985). Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 813–838.
Stein, N. L., and Levine, L. J. (1989). The causal organization of emotional knowledge. Cognition and Emotion, 3, 343–378.
Termine, N. T., and Izard, C. E. (1988). Infants’ responses to their mothers’ expressions of joy and sadness. Developmental Psychology, 24, 223–229.
Walters, R. H., and Brown, M. (1963). Studies of reinforcement of aggression. III. Transfer of responses to an interpersonal situation. Child Development, 34, 563–571.
Weiner, B., Graham, S., and Chandler, C. (1982). Pity, anger, and guilt: An attributional analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 226–232.
Wickless, C., and Kirsch, I. (1988). Cognitive correlates of anger, anxiety, and sadness. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 12, 367–377.
Zillmann, D., Baron, R., and Tamborini, R. (1981). Social costs of smoking: Effects of tobacco smoke on hostile behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 11, 548–561.
Dollard, J., Doob, L. W., Miller, N. E., Mowrer, O. H., and Sears, R. R. (1939), Frustration and Aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Berkowitz, L. (1994). Is Something Missing?. In: Huesmann, L.R. (eds) Aggressive Behavior. The Plenum Series in Social/Clinical Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-9116-7_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-9116-7_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4757-9118-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-9116-7
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive