Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Value of Screening for Microalbuminuria in People with Diabetes as Well as in the General Population

  • Chapter
The Kidney and Hypertension in Diabetes Mellitus

  • 107 Accesses

Abstract

The concept of microalbuminuria was first introduced among diabetologists [1,2]. It is diagnosed when the urinary albumin excretion rate (UAER) is slightly elevated compared with a normal reference range but lower than what is seen when the classical dipstix are positive for protein or albumin. Microalbuminuria is a marker of an increased risk of diabetic nephropathy and of cardiovascular disease in patients with insulin-dependent (LDDM) as well as with non-insulin-dependent (NDODM) diabetes mellitus [1–18]. A high number of studies of the pathophysiology and of interventional measures in these patients have been published as reviewed in a number of dissertations and reviews since 1989 [19–27] and seven sets of recommendations on the prevention of diabetic nephropathy, with special reference to microalbuminuria have been published [28–34]. More recently microalbuminuria has been brought into a wider perspective because it has been found to be associated with cardiovascular disease also in the non-diabetic population. In fact microalbuminuria may show to be a risk factor of cardiovascular disease among otherwise apparently healthy persons [35–49].

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Parving H-H, Oxenbøll B, Svendsen PAa, Christiansen JS, Andersen AR. Early detection of patients at risk of developing diabetic nephropathy. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1982; 100: 550–555.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Viberti GC, Hill RD, Jarret RJ, Argyropoulos A, Mahmud U, Keen H. Microalbuminuria as a predictor of clinical nephropathy in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1982; i: 1430–1432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Mogensen CE, Christensen CK. Predicting diabetic nephropathy in insulin-dependent patients. N EnglJ Med 1984; 311: 89–93.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Mathiesen ER, Oxenbøll B, Johansen K, Svendsen PAa, Deckert T. Incipient nephropathy in Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes. Diabetologia 1984; 26:406–410.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Mogensen CE. Microalbuminuria predicts clinical proteinuria and early mortality in maturity onset diabetes. N Engl J Med 1984; 310: 356–360.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Jarrett RJ, Viberti GC, Argyropoulos A, Hill RD, Mahmud U, Murrels TJ. Microalbuminuria predicts mortality in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabetic Med 1984; 1:17–19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Deckert T, Yokoyama H, Mathiesen ER, Rønn B, Jensen T, Fldt-Rasmussen B, Borch-Johnsen K, Jensen JS. Cohort study of predictive value of urinary albumin excretion for atherosclerotic vascular disease in patients with insulin dependent diabetes. BMJ 1996; 312: 871–874.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Messent JWC, Elliot TG, Hill RD, Jarrett RJ, Keen H, Viberti GC. Prognostic significance of microalbuminuria in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: A tventy-three year follow-up study. Kidney Int 1992; 41: 836–839.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Torffvit O, Agardh C-D. The predictive value of albuminuria for cardiovascular and renal disease. A 5-year follow-up study of 476 patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Diabetic Compl 1993; 7: 49–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Jensen T, Borch-Johnsen K, Kofoed-Enevoldsen A, Deckert T. Coronary heart disease in young type 1 (insulin-depedent) diabetic patients with and without diabetic nephropathy: Incidence and risk factors. Diabetologia 1987; 30:144–148.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Schmitz A, Vaeth M Microalbuminuria: A major risk factor in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. A 10-year follow-up study of 503 patients. Diabetic Med 1988; 5: 1126–1134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Mattock MB, Morrish NJ, Viberti GC, Keen H, Fitzgerald AP, Jackson G. Prospective study of microalbuminuria as predictor of mortality in NIDDM Diabetes 1992; 41: 736–741.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Neil A, Hawkins M, Potok M, Thororgood M, Cohen D, Mann J. A prospective population-based study of microalbuminuria as a predictor of mortality in NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1993; 16: 996–1003.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Gall M-A, Borch-Johnsen K, Hougaard P, Nielsen FS, Parving H-H. Albuminuria and poor glycemic control predict mortality in NIDDM Diabetes 1995; 44:1303–1309.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Rossing P, Hougaard P, Borch-Johnsen K, Parving H-H. Predictors of mortality in insulin dependent diabetes: 10 year observational follow up study. BMJ 1996; 313: 779–784.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Damsgaard EM, Freland A, Jørgensen OD, Mogensen CE. Eigjht to nine year mortality in known non-insulin dependent diabetics and controls. Kidney Internat 1992; 41:731–735.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. MacLeod JM, Lutale J, Marshall SM Albumin excretion and vascular deaths in NIDDM. Diabetologia 1995; 38: 610–616.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Beilin J, Stanton KG, McCaim VJ, Knuiman MW, Divitini ML. Microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes: an independent predictor of cardiovascular mortality. Aust Nz J Med 1996; 26: 519–525.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Borch-Johnsen K The prognosis of insulin-dependent diabetes — an epidemiological approach (Thesis). Dan Med Bull 1989; 36: 336–348.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Feldt-Rasmussen B. Microalbuminuria and clinical nephropathy in Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: Pathophysiological mechanisms and intervention studies (Thesis). Dan Med Bull 1989; 36: 405–415.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Jensen T. Albuminuria — a marker of renal and general vascular disease in IDDM (Thesis). Dan Med Bull 1991;38:134–144.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Christensen CK. The pre-proteinuric phase of diabetic nephropathy (Thesis). Dan Med Bull 1991; 38: 145–159.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Mathiesen ER. Prevention of diabetic nephropathy: Microalbuminuria and perspectives for intervention in insulin-dependent diabetes (Thesis). Dan Med Bull 1993; 40: 273–285.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Schmitz A. The kidney in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Studies on glomerular structure and fiinction and the relationship between microalbuminuria and mortality. Acta Diabetologica 1992; 29: 47–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Gall M. Albuminuria in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: prevalence, causes and consequences (Thesis). Dan Med Bull 1997: 44:465–485.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Deckert T, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Borch-Johnsen K, Jensen T, Kofoed-Enevoldsen A Albuminuria reflects widespread vascular damage. The Steno hypothesis. Diabetologia 1989; 32: 219–226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Mogensen CE, Hansen KW, Sommer S et al. »Microalbuminuria: studies in diabetes, essential hypertension and renal disease as compared with the background population.« In Advances in Nephrology. Grunfeld JP, ed. Mosby Year Book, 1991; vol 20:191–228.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Viberti GC, Mogensen CE, Passa P, Bilous R, Mangili R. »St Vincent Declaration, 1994: Guidelines for the prevention of diabetic renal failure.« In The Kidney and Hypertension in Diabetes Mellitus, 2nd ed. Mogensen CE, ed. Boston, Dordrecht, London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994; pp 515–527.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  29. Anon. Prevention of diabetes mellitus: report of a WHO study group. WHO Tech Rep Ser 844. Geneva: WHO, 1994: 55–59.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Jerums G, Cooper M, Gilbert R, O’Brien R, Taft J. Microalbuminuria in diabetes. Med J Aust 1994; 161: 265–268.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Consensus development conference on the diagnosis and management of nephropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 1357–1361.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Bennett PH, Haffiier S, Kaiske BL, et al. Screening and management of microalbuminuria in patients with diabetes mellitus: recommendations to the scientific advisory board of the National Kidney Foundation from an ad hoc committee of the council on diabetes mellitus of the National Kidney Foundation. Am J Kidney Dis 1995; 25:107–112.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Striker GE. Report on a workshop to develop management recommendations for the prevention of progression in chronic renal disease (Bethesda, April, 1994). Nephrol Dial Transplant 1995; 10: 290–292.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Mogensen CE, Keane WF, Bennett PH, Jerums G, Parving H-H, Passa P, Steffes MW, Striker GE, Viberti GC. Prevention of diabetic renal disease with special reference to microalbuminuria. Lancet 1995; 346:1080–1084.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Yudkin JS, Forrest RD, Jackson CA. Microalbuminuria as predictor of vascular disease in non-diabetic subjects: Islington diabetes survey. Lancet 1988; ii: 530–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Damsgaard EM, Frøland A, Jørgensen OD, Mogensen CE. Microalbuminuria as predictor of increased mortality in elderly people. BMJ 1990; 300:297–300.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Haffiier SM, Stern MP, Gruber KK, Hazuda HP, Mitchell BD, Patterson JK. Microalbuminuria. Potential marker for increased cardiovascular risk factors in non-diabetic subjects. Arteriosclerosis 1990;10:727–731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Winocour PH, Harland JOE, Millar JP, Laker MF, Alberti KGMM. Microalbuminuria and associated cardiovascular risk factors in the community. Atherosclerosis 1992; 93: 71–81.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Woo J, Cockram CS, Swaminathan R, Lau E, Chan E, Cheung R. Microalbuminuria and other cardiovascular risk factors in non-diabetic subjects. Int J Cardiol 1992; 37: 345–350.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Metcalff P, Baker J, Scott A, Wild C, Scragg R, Dryson E. Albuminuria in people at least 40 years old: Effect of obesity, hypertension and hyperlipidemia. Clin Chem 1992; 38:1802–1808.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Metcalff PA, Baker JR, Scragg RKR, Dryson E, Scott AJ, Wild CJ. Albuminuria in people at least 40 years old. Effect of alcohol consumption, regular exercise, and cigarette smoking. Clin Chem 1993; 39: 1793–1797.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Gould MM, Mohamed-Ali V, Goubet SA, Yudkin JS, Haines AP. Microalbuminuria: associations with height and sex in non-diabetic subjects. BMJ 1993; 306: 240–242.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Dimmitt SB, Lindquist TL, Mamotte CDS, Burke V, Beilin U. Urine albumin excretion in healthy subjects. J Human Hypertens 1993; 7: 239–243.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Beatty OL, Atkinson AB, Browne J, Clarke K, Sheridan B, Bell PM. Microalbuminuria does not predict cardiovascular disease in a normal general practice population. Ir J Med Sci 1993; 163: 140–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Mykkänen L, Haffiier SM, Kuusisto J, Pyorälä K, Laakso M Microalbuminuria precedes the development of NIDDM. Diabetes 1994; 43: 552–557.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Jensen JS, Borch-Johnsen K, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Jensen G, Feldt-Rasmussen B. Atherosclerotic risk factors are increased in clinically healthy subjects with microalbuminuria. Atherosclerosis 1995;112:245–252.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Gould MM, Mohamed-Ali V, Goubet SA, Yudkin JS, Haines AP. Associations of urinary albumin excretion rate with vascular disease in Europid nondiabetic subjects. J Diabetic Compl 1994; 8: 180–188.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Kuusisto J, Mykkānin L, Pyorälä K, Laakso M Hyperinsulinemic microalbuminuria. A new risk indicator for coronary heart disease. Ciculation 1995: 91: 831–837.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Jensen JS, Borch-Johnsen K, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Appleyard M, Jensen G. Urinary albumin excretion and history of acute myocardial infarction in a cross-sectional population study of 2613 individuals. Journal of Cardiovascular Risk 1997; 4:121–125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Mogensen CE, Chachati A, Christensen CK, Close CF, Deckert T, Hommel E, Kastrup J, Lefebvre P, Mathiesen ER, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Schmitz A, Viberti GC. Microalbuminuria: an early marker of renal involvement in diabetes. Uremia Invest 1985–86; 9: 85–95.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Feldt-Rasmussen B, Dinesen B, Deckert M. Enzyme immuno assay, an improved determination of urinary albumin in diabetics with incipient nephropathy. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1985; 45: 539–544.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Christiansen JS. Glomerular hyperfiltration in diabetes mellitus. Diabetic Med 1985; 2: 235–239.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Parving H-H, Mogensen CE, Jensen WE et al. Increased urinary albumin excretion rate in benign essential hypertension. Lancet 1974; i: 1190–1192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Gosling P, Beevers DG. Urinary albumin excretion and blood pressure in the general population. Clin Sci 1989; 76: 39–42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Hommel E, Mathiesen ER, Edsberg B, Bahnsen M, Parving H-H. Acute reduction of arterial blood pressure reduces urinary albumin excretion in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic patients with incipient nephropathy. Diabetologia 1986; 29: 211–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Deckert T, Kofoed-Enevoldsen A, Vidal P, Norgaard K, Andreassen HB, Feldt-Rasmussen B. Size and charge selectivity of glomerular filtration in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with and without albuminuria. Diabetologia 1993; 36: 244–251.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Feldt-Rasmussen B. Increased transcapillary escape rate of albumin in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. Diabetologia 1986; 29: 282–286.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Mathiesen ER, Renn B, Jensen T, Storm B, Deckert T. Hie relationship between blood pressure and urinary albumin excretion in the development of microalbuminuria. Diabetes 1990; 39: 245–249.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Parving H-H, Hommel E, Mathiesen ER, Skett P, Edsberg B, Bahnsen M et al. Prevalence of microalbuminuria, arterial hypertension, retinopathy and neuropathy in patients with insulin dependent diabetes. BMJ 1988; 296: 157–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Feldt-Rasmussen B, Mathiesen ER, Jensen T, Lauritzen T, Deckert T. Effect of improved metabolic control on loss of kidney function in insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Diabetologia 1991; 34: 164–170.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Bjorck S, Mulec H, Johns« SA et al. Renal protective effect of Enalapril in diabetic nephropathy. BMJ 1992; 304: 339–343.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Lewis EJ, Hunskker LG, Bain RP, Rohde RD, for the Collaborative Study Group. The effect of angiotensin-convertmg-enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1456–1462.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Parving H-H, Andersen AR, Schmidt UM, Hommel E, Mathiesen ER, Svendsen PAa. Effect of antihypertensive treatment on kidney function in diabetic nephropathy. BMJ 1987; 294: 1443–1447.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Mathiesen ER, Hommel E, Giese J, Parving H-H. Efficacy of Captopril in postponing nephropathy in normotensive insulin-dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. BMJ 1991; 303: 81–87.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Viberti GC, Mogensen CE, Groop L, Pauls JF, for the European Microalbuminuria Captopril Study Group. Effect of Captopril on progression to clinical proteinuria in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria. JAMA 1994; 271: 275–279.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Parving H-H, Hommel E. Prognosis in diabetic nephropathy. BMJ 1989; 299: 230–233.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Dahl-Jørgensen K, Hanssen KF, Kierulf P, Bjøro T, Sandvik L, Aagenaess O. Reduction of urinary albumin excretion after 4 years of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1988; 117: 19–25.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Reichard P, Berglund B, Britz A, Cars I, Nilsson BY, Rosenqvist U. Intensified conventional insulin treatment retards the microvascular complications of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). The Stockholm Diabetes Intervention Study after five years. J Mem Med 1991; 230: 101–108.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 977–986.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Diabetes Control and Complications (DCCT) Research Group. Effect of intensive therapy on the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy in the diabetes control and complications trial. Kidney Int 1995; 42:1703–1720.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Microalbuminuria Collaborative Study Group, United Kingdom. Intensive therapy and progression to clinical albuminuria in patients with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria. BMJ 1995; 311: 973–977.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Gall M, Rossing P, Skøtt P, Damsbo P, Vaag A, Bech K et al. Prevalence of micro- and macro-albuminuria, arterial hypertension, retinopathy and large vessel disease in European Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. Diabetologia 1991; 34:655–661.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Niskanen L, Uusitupa M, Sarlund H, Siitonen O, Voutilainen E, Penttila I et al. Microalbuminuria predicts the development of serum lipoprotein abnormalities favouring atherogenesis in newly diagnosed Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. Diabetologia 1990; 33: 237 243.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Ravid M, Savin H, Jutrin I, Bental T, Katz B, Lishner M. Long-term stabilizing effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on plasma creatinine and on proteinuria in normotensive type II diabetic patients. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 577–581.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Marre M, Claudel J-P, Ciret P, Luis N, Suarez L, Passa P. Laser immunonephelometry for routine quantification of urinary albumin excretion. Clin Chem 1987; 33: 209–213.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Watts GF, Morris RW, Khan K, Polak A. Urinary albumin excretion in healthy adult subjects: reference values and some factors affectin their interpretation. Clin Chim Acta 1988; 172: 191–198.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Jensen JS, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Borch-Johnsen K, Jensen G and the Copenhagen City Heart Study Group. Urinary albumin excretion in a population based sample of 1011 middle aged non-diabetic subjects. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1993; 53: 867–872

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Jensen JS, Borch-Johnsen K, Jensen G, Feldt-Rasmussen B. Microalbuminuria reflects a generalized transvascular albumin leakiness in clinically healthy subjects. Clin Sci 1995; 88: 629–33.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Jensen JS, Borch-Johnsen K, Deckert T, Deckert M, Jensen G, Feldt-Rasmussen B. Reduced glomerular size- and charge-selectivity in clinically healthy individuals with microalbuminuria. Eur J Clin Invest 1995; 25: 608–614.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Borch-Johnsen K, Wenzel H, Viberti GC, Mogensen CE. Is screening and intervention for Microalbuminuria worthwhile in patients with insulin dependent diabetes? BMJ 1993; 306: 1722–1725.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Ducorps M, Bauduceau B, Poirier JM, Cosson E, Belmejdoub G, Mayaudon H. Hypertension in black African diabetics (Abstract). Diabetologia 1996; 39: Suppl. 1: A287.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Nephrology, Copenhagen, and Steno Diabetes Center, Rigshospitalet University Hospital, Gentofte, Denmark

    Bo Feldt-Rasmussen, Jan Skov Jensen & Knut Borch-Johnsen

Authors
  1. Bo Feldt-Rasmussen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jan Skov Jensen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Knut Borch-Johnsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Medical Department M (Diabetes & Endocrinology), Aarhus Kommunehospital, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark

    Carl Erik Mogensen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Feldt-Rasmussen, B., Jensen, J.S., Borch-Johnsen, K. (1998). Value of Screening for Microalbuminuria in People with Diabetes as Well as in the General Population. In: Mogensen, C.E. (eds) The Kidney and Hypertension in Diabetes Mellitus. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-6752-0_16

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-6752-0_16

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4757-6754-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-6752-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation