Healing the American Indian Soul Wound
Abstract
It was almost two decades ago that the authors became aware of the concept of a “soul wound,” although knowledge of what is characterized as the “soul wound” had been an integral part of indigenous knowledge ever since Columbus landed in this hemisphere and Cortez arrived in Vera Cruz, Mexico. Native people who were asked about problems in the contemporary Native community explained that present problems had their etiology in the traumatic events known as the “soul wound” Knowledge of the soul wound has been present in Indian country for many generations. Current synonymous terms include historical trauma (Brave Heart, in press a), historical legacy, American Indian holocaust, and intergenerational posttraumatic stress disorder (Brave Heart & De Brun, in press). In addition, there has been academic literature documenting the American Indian holocaust, thus bringing some validation to the feelings of a community that has not had the world acknowledge the systematic genocide perpetrated on it (Brave Heart-Jordan & DeBruyn, 1995; Brown, 1971; Legters, 1988; Stannard, 1992; Thornton, 1987).
Keywords
Indian Health Native People Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Indigenous Knowledge Acculturative StressPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
- Bergmann, M. S., and Jucovy, M. E. (Eds.) (1990). Generations of the Holocaust. New York: Columbia University Press. (Originally published 1982 )Google Scholar
- Bhabha, H. (1983). The other question: The stereotype and colonial discourse. Screen, 24, 6–23.Google Scholar
- Brave Heart-Jordan, M. Y. H. (1995). The return to the Sacred Path: Healing, from historical trauma and historical unresolved grief among the Lakota. Doctoral dissertation Smith College, School for Social Work, Northampton, Massachusetts. (Copies are available through the Takini Network, c/o the author, University of Denver Graduate School of Social Work, 2148 S. High Street, Denver, CO 80208.)Google Scholar
- Brave Heart-Jordan, M., and DeBruyn, L. M. (1995). So she may walk in balance: Integrating the impact of historical trauma in the treatment of Native American Indian women. In J. Adleman and G. Enguidanos (Eds.), Racism in the lives of women: Testimony, theory, and guides to anti-racist practice (pp. 345–368 ). New York: Haworth Press.Google Scholar
- Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (in press a). The return to the sacred path: Healing the historical trauma and historical unresolved grief response among the Lakota. Smith College Studies in Social Work,June 1998.Google Scholar
- Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (in press b). Gender differences in the historical trauma response among the Lakota. Journal of Health and Social Policy.Google Scholar
- Brave Heart, M. Y. H. (in press c). Oyate Ptayela: Rebuilding the Lakota Nation through addressing historical trauma among Lakota parents. Journal of Human Behavior and the Social Environment.Google Scholar
- Brave Heart, M. Y. H., and DeBruyn, L. M. (in press). The American Indian Holocaust: Healing historical unresolved grief. National Center for American Indian and Alaska Native Research.Google Scholar
- Brown, D. (1971). Bury my heart at Wounded Knee. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
- Claymore, B. (1988). A public health approach to suicide attempts on a Sioux reservation. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 1 (3), 19–24.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Curry, A. (1972). Bringing of forms, Colorado Springs, CO: Dustbooks. Distributed by Seventh-Wing Publications.Google Scholar
- Danieli, Y. (1985). The treatment and prevention of long-term effects and intergenerational transmission of victimization: A lesson from Holocaust survivors and their children. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake (pp. 295–313 ). New York: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
- Danieli, Y. (1989). Mourning in survivors and children of survivors of the Nazi Holocaust: The role of group and community modalities. In D. R. Dietrich and P. C. Shabad (Eds.), The problems of loss and mourning: Psychoanalytic perspectives (pp. 427–457 ). Madison, CT: International Universities Press.Google Scholar
- Danieli, Y. (1993). Diagnostic and therapeutic use of the multigenerational family tree in working with survivors of the Nazi Holocaust. In P. W. Wilson and B. Raphael (Eds.), International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 889–898 ). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Deloria, V. and Lytle, C. M. (1983). American Indians, American justice. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
- Duran, E. F. (1990). Transforming the soul wound: A theoretical/clinical approach to American Indian psychology. Berkeley, CA: Folklore Institute.Google Scholar
- Duran, E. E, and Duran, B. M. (1995). Native American postcolonial psychology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
- Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
- Fogelman, E. (1988). Therapeutic alternatives of survivors. In R. L. Braham (Ed.), The psychological perspectives of the Holocaust and of its aftermath (pp. 79–108 ). New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
- Fogelman, E. (1991). Mourning without graves. In A. Medvene (Ed.), Storms and rainbows: The many faces of death (pp. 25–43 ). Washington, DC: Lewis Press.Google Scholar
- Foucault, M. (1967). Madness and civilization. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
- Freire, P. (1968). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.Google Scholar
- Indian Health Service. (1987). Chart series book. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesGoogle Scholar
- Public Health Service, IHS, Office of Planning and Evaluation and Legislation, Division of program statistics. Indian Health Service. (1995). Trends in Indian health. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
- Indian Health Service Report. ( 1991, December). A roundtable conference on dysfunctional behavior and its impact on Indian health. Final Report. Albuquerque, NM and Washington, DC: Kauffman.Google Scholar
- Jacobs. (1972). Dispossessing the American Indian: Indians and whites on the colonial frontier. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
- Jucovy, M. (1992). Psychoanalytic contributions to Holocaust studies. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 73, 267–282.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Kehoe, A. B. (1989). The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and revitalization. Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
- Kestenberg, J. S. (1990). A metapsychological assessment based on an analysis of a survivor’s child. In M. S. Bergmann and M. E. Jucovy (Eds.), Generations of the Holocaust (pp. 137–158 ). New York: Columbia University Press. (Original publication 1982 )Google Scholar
- Koller, P., Marmar, C. R., and Kansas, N. (1992). Psychodynamic group treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 42 (2), 225–246.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Krugman, S. (1987). Trauma in the family: Perspectives on the intergenerational transmission of violence. In B. A. van der Kolk (Ed.), Psychological trauma (pp. 127–151 ). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Press.Google Scholar
- Krystal, H. (1984). Integration and self-healing in post-traumatic states. In S. A. Luel and P. Marcus (Eds.), Psychoanalytic reflections on the Holocaust: Selected essays (pp. 113–134 ). New York: Holocaust Awareness Institute, Center for Judaic Studies, University of Denver and Ktav Publishing House.Google Scholar
- Legters, L. H. (1988). The American genocide. Policy Studies Journal, 16 (4), 768–777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lifton, R. J. (1988). Understanding the traumatized self: Imagery, symbolization, and transformation. In J. P. Wilson, Z. Harel, and B. Kahana (Eds.), Human adaptation to extreme stress: From the Holocaust to Vietnam (pp. 7–31 ). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
- Limmerick, P. N. (1987). The legacy of conquest: The unbroken past of the American West. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
- MacAndrews, C., and Edgerton, R. (1969). Drunken comportment: A social explanation. Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
- Macgregor, G. (1975). Warriors without weapons. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ( Original published 1946 )Google Scholar
- Marcus, P., and Rosenberg, A. (1988). A philosophical critique of the “Survivor Syndrome” and some implications for treatment. In R. L. Braham (Ed.), The psychological perspectives of the Holocaust and of its aftermath (pp. 53–78 ). New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
- Niehardt. (1959). Black Elk speaks. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
- Pearce, R. H. (1988). Savagism and civilization: A study of the Indian and the American mind. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
- Prucha, F. P. (1990). Documents of the United States Indian policy ( 2nd Ed. Expanded). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. (Original publication 1975 )Google Scholar
- Report to Congress. (1992). National Indian Policy Center: Reporting to Congress, Recommendation for the establishment of a National Indian Policy Center. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
- Shoshan, T. (1989). Mourning and longing from generation to generation. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 43 (2), 193–207.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Solomon, Z., Kotler, M., and Mikulincer, M. (1988). Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder among second-generation Holocaust survivors: Preliminary findings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145 (7), 865–868.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Stannard, D. (1992). American Holocaust: Columbus and the conquest of the New World. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
- Tanner, H. (1982). A history of all the dealings of the United States government with the Sioux. Unpublished manuscript. Prepared for the Black Hills Land Claim by order of the U.S. Supreme court, on file at the D’Arcy McNickle Center for the History of the American Indian, Newberry Library, Chicago.Google Scholar
- Thornton, R. (1987). American Indian holocaust and survival: A population history since 1942. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
- van der Kolk, B. A. (Ed.) (1987). Psychological trauma. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
- Villanueva, M. (1989). Literature review. In E. Duran (Ed.), Suicide handbook: Prevention and intervention with Native Americans (pp. 13–36 ). Sacramento, CA: Indian Health Service.Google Scholar
- Wallace, A. E. (1969). The death and rebirth of the Seneca. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
- Weinfeld, M., Sigal, J. J., and Eaton, W. W. (1981). Long-term effects of the Holocaust on selected social attitudes and behaviors of survivors: A cautionary note. Social Forces, 60, 1–19.Google Scholar
- White, R. (1983). The roots of dependency: Subsistence, environment and social change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
- Williams, C. L., and Berry, J. W. (1991). Primary prevention of acculturative stress among refugees: Application of psychological theory and practice. American Psychologist, 46 (6), 632–641.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Yellow Horse-Davis, S. E (1994). Federal Policy Impact on Indian Mental Health Services. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar