Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Understanding the Origin of Asthma and its Relationship to Breastfeeding

  • Conference paper
Book cover Protecting Infants through Human Milk

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((AEMB,volume 554))

Abstract

Asthma is a chronic disease of the lung that has been increasing at an alarming rate in industrialized countries around the world over the last few decades. Although considerable progress has been made in our understanding of the underlying pathogenesis of the disease, the exact causes of the increasing prevalence are unknown. Studies suggest that most asthma develops in early childhood and that environmental factors present early in life may be crucial in the development of disease. One potential explanation for the recent epidemic referred to as the “hygiene hypothesis” postulates that factors that have resulted in a reduction in exposure to microbial products and/or infections in the western world may be contributing to this rise in disease prevalence. As early life influences are known to play an important role in establishment of asthma, studies have focused on the interface between mother and child that occurs during gestation and through breastfeeding. In this regard, the body of evidence regarding the relationship between breastfeeding and asthma indicates benefit but with the potential for risk. While providing population-level protection from infections and atopy in infancy and early childhood, breastfeeding might also pose an increased risk of atopic asthma among children with asthmatic mothers. In order to put this controversy in context, we discuss our current understanding of asthma pathogenesis, current theories on the factors driving the rising prevalence of asthma, and then discuss the potential influence of breastfeeding on asthma pathogenesis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Aaby P, Shaheen SO, Heyes CB, Goudiaby A, Hall AJ, Shiell AW, Jensen H, Marchant A. Early BCG vaccination and reduction in atopy in Guinea-Bissau. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30:644–650.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Adlerberth I, Carlsson B, de Man P, Jalil F, Khan SR, Larsson P, Mellander L, Svanborg C, Wold AE, Hanson LA. Intestinal colonization with Enterobacteriaceae in Pakistani and Swedish hospital-delivered infants. Acta Paediatr Scand 1991;80:602–610.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Adlerberth I, Jalil F, Carlsson B, Mellander L, Hanson LA, Larsson P, Khalil K, Wold AE. High turnover rate of Escherichia coli strains in the intestinal flora of infants in Pakistan. Epidemiol Infect 1998; 121:587–598.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Alm JS, Lilja G, Pershagen G, Scheynius A. Early BCG vaccination and development of atopy. Lancet 1997;350:400–403.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Atabani SF, Byrnes AA, Jaye A, Kidd IM, Magnusen AF, Whittle H, Karp CL. Natural measles causes prolonged suppression of interleukin-12 production. J Infect Dis 2001;184:1–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Azim T, Ahmad SM, Sefat EK, Sarker MS, Unicomb LE, De S, Hamadani JD, Salam MA, Wahed MA, Albert MJ. Immune response of children who develop persistent diarrhea following rotavirus infection. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1999;6:690–695.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Azzawi M, Bradley B, Jeffery PK, Frew AJ, Wardlaw AJ, Knowles G, Assoufi B, Collins JV, Durham S, Kay AB. Identification of activated T lymphocytes and eosinophils in bronchial biopsies in stable atopic asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:1407–1413.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Ball TM, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Griffith KA, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Wright AL. Siblings, day-care attendance, and the risk of asthma and wheezing during childhood. N Engl J Med 2000;343:538–543.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Barnes PF, Lu S, Abrams JS, Wang E, Yamamura M, Modlin RL. Cytokine production at the site of disease in human tuberculosis. Infect Immun 1993;61:3482–3489.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Barrios C, Brawand P, Berney M, Brandt C, Lambert PH, Siegrist CA. Neonatal and early life immune responses to various forms of vaccine antigens qualitatively differ from adult responses: predominance of a Th2-biased pattern which persists after adult boosting. Eur J Immunol 1996;26:1489–1496.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Beasley R. The burden of asthma with specific reference to the United States. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002;109:S482–489.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Becquet R, Leroy V, Salmi LR. Breastfeeding, atopy, and asthma. Lancet 2003;361:174; author reply 175–176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Berlin CM, Jr., Kacew S, Lawrence R, LaKind JS, Campbell R. Criteria for chemical selection for programs on human milk surveillance and research for environmental chemicals. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2002;65:1839–1851.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Bjorksten B. The environmental influence on childhood asthma. Allergy 1999;54 Suppl 49:17–23.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Bjorksten B, Naaber P, Sepp E, Mikelsaar M. The intestinal microflora in allergic Estonian and Swedish 2-year- old children. Clin Exp Allergy 1999;29:342–346.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Bjorksten F, Suoniemi I, Koski V. Neonatal birch-pollen contact and subsequent allergy to birch pollen. Clin Allergy 1980;10:585–591.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Bodner C, Godden D, Seaton A. Family size, childhood infections and atopic diseases. The Aberdeen WHEASE Group. Thorax 1998;53:28–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Borish L, Aarons A, Rumbyrt J, Cvietusa P, Negri J, Wenzel S. Interleukin-10 regulation in normal subjects and patients with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1996;97:1288–1296.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Böttcher MF, Nordin EK, Sandin A, Midtvedt T, Bjorksten B. Microflora-associated characteristics in faeces from allergic and nonallergic infants. Clin Exp Allergy 2000a;30:1590–1596.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Böttcher MF, Jenmalm MC, Bjorksten B, Garofalo RP. Chemoattractant factors in breast milk from allergic and nonallergic mothers. Pediatr Res 2000b;47:592–597.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Böttcher MF, Jenmalm MC, Garofalo RP, Bjorksten B. Cytokines in breast milk from allergic and nonallergic mothers. Pediatr Res 2000c;47:157–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Böttcher MF, Fredriksson J, Hellquist A, Jenmalm MC. Effects of breast milk from allergic and non-allergic mothers on mitogen- and allergen-induced cytokine production. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2003a; 14:27–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Böttcher MF, Jenmalm MC, Bjorksten B. Cytokine, chemokine and secretory IgA levels in human milk in relation to atopic disease and IgA production in infants. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2003b; 14:35–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Bottini N, Borgiani P, Otsu A, Saccucci P, Stefanini L, Greco E, Fontana L, Hopkin JM, Mao XQ, Shirakawa T. IL-4 receptor alpha chain genetic polymorphism and total IgE levels in the English population: two-locus haplotypes are more informative than individual SNPs. Clin Genet 2002;61:288–292.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Brandtzaeg PE. Current understanding of gastrointestinal immunoregulation and its relation to food allergy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002;964:13–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Buescher ES. Anti-inflammatory characteristics of human milk: how, where, why. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001;501:207–222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Busse WW. The relationship between viral infections and onset of allergic diseases and asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 1989;19:1–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Carosso A, Ruffino C, Bugiani M. The effect of birth season on pollenosis. Ann Allergy 1986;56:300–303.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Chulada PC, Arbes SJ, Jr., Dunson D, Zeldin DC. Breast-feeding and the prevalence of asthma and wheeze in children: analyses from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111:328–336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Cookson WO, Sharp PA, Faux JA, Hopkin JM. Linkage between immunoglobulin E responses underlying asthma and rhinitis and chromosome 11q. Lancet 1989;1:1292–1295.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Coppa GV, Pierani P, Zampini L, Brani S, Cartoni I, Gabrielli O. Characterization of oligosaccharides in milk and feces of breast-fed infants by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001;501:307–314.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Corrigan CJ, Kay AB. CD4 T-lymphocyte activation in acute severe asthma. Relationship to disease severity and atopic status. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;141:970–977.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Crater SE, Platts-Mills TA. Searching for the cause of the increase in asthma. Curr Opin Pediatr 1998; 10:594–599.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Dell S, To T. Breastfeeding and asthma in young children: findings from a population-based study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001;155:1261–1265.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Diaz-Sanchez D, Garcia MP, Wang M, Jyrala M, Saxon A. Nasal challenge with diesel exhaust particles can induce sensitization to a neoallergen in the human mucosa. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999; 104:1183–1188.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Erb KJ, Kirman J, Delahunt B, Moll H, Le Gros G. Infection of mice with Mycobacterium bovis-BCG induces both Thl and Th2 immune responses in the absence of interferon-gamma signalling. Eur Cytokine Netw 1999;10:147–154.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Falliers CJ, de Cardoso RR, Bane HN, Coffey R, Middleton E, Jr. Discordant allergic manifestations in monozygotic twins: genetic identity versus clinical, physiologic, and biochemical differences. J Allergy 1971;47:207–219.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Farooqi IS, Hopkin JM. Early childhood infection and atopic disorder. Thorax 1998;53:927–932.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Field CJ, Thomson CA, Van Aerde JE, Parrott A, Euler A, Lien E, Clandinin MT. Lower proportion of CD45R0+ cells and deficient interleukin-10 production by formula-fed infants, compared with human-fed, is corrected with supplementation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000;31:291–299.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Garofalo R, Chheda S, Mei F, Palkowetz KH, Rudloff HE, Schmalstieg FC, Rassin DK, Goldman AS. Interleukin-10 in human milk. Pediatr Res 1995;37:444–449.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Gruchalla RS, Gan V, Roy L, Bokovoy J, McDermott S, Lawrence G, Hynan L, Luckett P. Results of an innercity school-based asthma and allergy screening pilot study: a combined approach using written questionnaires and step testing. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2003;90:491–499.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Hamosh M. The milky way: from mammary gland to milk to newborn—Macy-Gyorgy Award presentation (1999). Adv Exp Med Biol 2002;503:17–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Hanson LA, Silfverdal SA, Korotkova M, Erling V, Strombeck L, Oleen P, Ulanova M, Hahn-Zoric M, Zaman S, Ashraf R, Telemo E. Immune system modulation by human milk. Adv Exp Med Biol 2002;503:99–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Hawkes JS, Bryan DL, James MJ, Gibson RA. Cytokines (IL-lbeta, IL-6, TNF-alpha, TGF-betal, and TGF-beta2) and prostaglandin E2 in human milk during the first three months postpartum. Pediatr Res 1999;46:194–199.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Heinzmann A, Mao XQ, Akaiwa M, Kreomer RT, Gao PS, Ohshima K, Umeshita R, Abe Y, Braun S, Yamashita T, Roberts MH, Sugimoto R, Arima K, Arinobu Y, Yu B, Kruse S, Enomoto T, Dake Y, Kawai M, Shimazu S, Sasaki S, Adra CN, Kitaichi M, Inoue H, Yamauchi K, Tomichi N, Kurimoto F, Hamasaki N, Hopkin JM, Izuhara K, Shirakawa T, Deichmann KA. Genetic variants of IL-13 signalling and human asthma and atopy. Hum Mol Genet 2000;9:549–559.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Hershey GK, Friedrich MF, Esswein LA, Thomas ML, Chatila TA. The association of atopy with a gain-of-function mutation in the alpha subunit of the interleukin-4 receptor. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1720–1725.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Hirose J, Ito S, Hirata N, Kido S, Kitabatake N, Narita H. Occurrence of the major food allergen, ovomucoid, in human breast milk as an immune complex. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2001;65:1438–1440.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Hsieh CS, Macatonia SE, Tripp CS, Wolf SF, O’Garra A, Murphy KM. Development of TH1 CD4+ T cells through IL-12 produced by Listeria-induced macrophages. Science 1993;260:547–549.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. [ISAAC] The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood Steering Committee. Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema. Lancet 1998;351:1225–1232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Isolauri E, Tahvanainen A, Peltola T, Arvola T. Breast-feeding of allergic infants. J Pediatr 1999;134:27–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Johns DR. The other human genome: mitochondrial DNA and disease. Nat Med 1996;2:1065–1068.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Kalliomaki M, Ouwehand A, Arvilommi H, Kero P, Isolauri E. Transforming growth factor-beta in breast milk: a potential regulator of atopic disease at an early age. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104:1251–1257.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Kalliomaki M, Kirjavainen P, Eerola E, Kero P, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Distinct patterns of neonatal gut microflora in infants in whom atopy was and was not developing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001 ;107:129–134.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Kaufmann SH, Ladel CH, Flesch IE. T cells and cytokines in intracellular bacterial infections: experiences with Mycobacterium bovis BCG. Ciba Found Symp 1995;195:123–132; discussion 132–126.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Kay AB. Allergy and allergic diseases. First of two parts. N Engl J Med 2001;344:30–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Kero J, Gissler M, Gronlund MM, Kero P, Koskinen P, Hemminki E, Isolami E. Mode of delivery and asthma: is there a connection? Pediatr Res 2002;52:6–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Kilpelainen M, Terho EO, Helenius H, Koskenvuo M. Farm environment in childhood prevents the development of allergies. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30:201–208.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Kim JH, Ohsawa M. Oral tolerance to ovalbumin in mice as a model for detecting modulators of the immunologic tolerance to a specific antigen. Biol Pharm Bull 1995;18:854–858.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Kline JN, Waldschmidt TJ, Businga TR, Lemish JE, Weinstock JV, Thome PS, Krieg AM. Modulation of airway inflammation by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides in a murine model of asthma. J Immunol 1998;160:2555–2559.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Kramer MS, Chalmers B, Hodnett ED, Sevkovskaya Z, Dzikovich I, Shapiro S, Collet JP, Vanilovich I, Mezen I, Ducruet T, Shishko G, Zubovich V, Mknuik D, Gluchanina E, Dombrovskiy V, Ustinovitch A, Kot T, Bogdanovich N, Ovchinikova L, Helsing E. Promotion of Breastfeeding Intervention Trial (PROBIT): a randomized trial in the Republic of Belarus. JAMA 2001;285:413–420.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Kuhn R, Lohler J, Rennick D, Rajewsky K, Muller W. Interleukin-10-deficient mice develop chronic enterocolitis. Cell 1993;75:263–274.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Laiho K, Lampi AM, Hamalainen M, Moilanen E, Piironen V, Arvola T, Syrjanen S, Isolauri E. Breast milk fatty acids, eicosanoids, and cytokines in mothers with and without allergic disease. Pediatr Res 2003;53:642–647.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Landrigan PJ, Sonawane B, Mattison D, McCally M, Garg A. Chemical contaminants in breast milk and their impacts on children’s health: an overview. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110.A313–315.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Loibichler C, Pichler J, Gerstmayr M, Bohle B, Kisst H, Urbanek R, Szepfalusi Z. Materno-fetal passage of nutritive and inhalant allergens across placentas of term and pre-term deliveries perfused in vitro. Clin Exp Allergy 2002;32:1546–1551.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Lynch NR, Hagel I, Perez M, Di Prisco MC, Lopez R, Alvarez N. Effect of anthelmintic treatment on the allergic reactivity of children in a tropical slum. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993;92:404–411.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Mannino DM, Homa DM, Pertowski CA, Ashizawa A, Nixon LL, Johnson CA, Ball LB, Jack E, Kang DS. Surveillance for asthma-United States, 1960–1995. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ 1998;47:1–27.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Marsh DG, Neely JD, Breazeale DR, Ghosh B, Freidhoff LR, Ehrlich-Kautzky E, Schou C, Krishnaswamy G, Beaty TH. Linkage analysis of IL4 and other chromosome 5q31.1 markers and total serum immunoglobulin E concentrations. Science 1994;264:1152–1156.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Martinez FD. Viral infections and the development of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:1644–1647; discussion 1647–1648.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Martinez FD, Stern DA, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Taussig LM, Halonen M. Association of interleukin-2 and interferon-gamma production by blood mononuclear cells in infancy with parental allergy skin tests and with subsequent development of atopy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995a;96:652–660.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. The Group Health Medical Associates. N Engl J Med 1995b;332:133–138.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Martinez FD. Development of wheezing disorders and asthma in preschool children. Pediatrics 2002; 109:362–367.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Matricardi PM, Franzinelli F, Franco A, Caprio G, Murru F, Cioffi D, Ferrigno L, Palermo A, Ciccarelli N, Rosmini F. Sibship size, birth order, and atopy in 11,371 Italian young men. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:439–444.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Asthma-United States, 1982–1992. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1995;43(51–52):952–955.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Morrow AL, Guerrero ML, Shults J, Calva JJ, Lutter C, Bravo J, Ruiz-Palacios G, Morrow RC, Butterfoss FD. Efficacy of home-based peer counselling to promote exclusive breastfeeding: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1999;353:1226–1231.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Mosmann TR, Cherwinski H, Bond MW, Giedlin MA, Coffman RL. Two types of murine helper T cell clone. I. Definition according to profiles of lymphokine activities and secreted proteins. J Immunol 1986; 136:2348–2357.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention NHLBI/WHO Workshop Report, 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Nicolai T, von Mutius E. Pollution and the development of allergy: the East and West Germany story. Arch Toxicol Suppl 1997;19:201–206.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Ober C. Susceptibility genes in asthma and allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2001;1:174–179.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, Read AW, Landau LI, Stanley FJ, Kendall GE, Burton PR. Association between breast feeding and asthma in 6 year old children: findings of a prospective birth cohort study. BMJ 1999;319:815–819.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Oddy WH, Sly PD, de Klerk NH, Landau LI, Kendall GE, Holt PG, Stanley FJ. Breast feeding and respiratory morbidity in infancy: a birth cohort study. Arch Dis Child 2003a;88:224–228.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Oddy WH, Halonen M, Martinez FD, Lohman IC, Stern DA, Kurzius-Spencer M, Guerra S, Wright AL. TGF-beta in human milk is associated with wheeze in infancy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003b;l 12:723–728.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Pabst R. The anatomical basis for the immune function of the gut. Anat Embryol (Berl) 1987;176:135–144.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Pessi T, Sutas Y, Hurme M, Isolauri E. Interleukin-10 generation in atopic children following oral Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;30:1804–1808.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Postma DS, Bleecker ER, Amelung PJ, Holroyd KJ, Xu J, Panhuysen CI, Meyers DA, Levitt RC. Genetic susceptibility to asthma-bronchial hyperresponsiveness coinherited with a major gene for atopy. N Engl J Med 1995;333:894–900.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Holt BJ, Smallacombe TB, Loh R, Sly PD, Holt PG. Transplacental priming of the human immune system to environmental allergens: universal skewing of initial T cell responses toward the Th2 cytokine profile. J Immunol 1998a; 160:4730–4737.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Smallacombe T, Holt BJ, Sly PD, Loh R, Holt PG. Reciprocal age-related patterns of allergen-specific T-cell immunity in normal vs. atopic infants. Clin Exp Allergy 1998b;28 Suppl 5:39–44; discussion 50–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Prescott SL, Macaubas C, Smallacombe T, Holt BJ, Sly PD, Holt PG. Development of allergen-specific T-cell memory in atopic and normal children. Lancet 1999;353:196–200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Raqib R, Lindberg AA, Wretlind B, Bardhan PK, Andersson U, Andersson J. Persistence of local cytokine production in shigellosis in acute and convalescent stages. Infect Immun 1995;63:289–296.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Rautava S, Kalliomaki M, Isolauri E. Probiotics during pregnancy and breast-feeding might confer immunomodulatory protection against atopic disease in the infant. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 109:119–121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Reik W, Walter J. Imprinting mechanisms in mammals. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1998;8:154–164.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Remes ST, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Wright AL. Dog exposure in infancy decreases the subsequent risk of frequent wheeze but not of atopy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;108:509–515.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Saarinen KM, Vaarala O, Klemetti P, Savilahti E. Transforming growth factor-beta1 in mothers’ colostrum and immune responses to cows’ milk proteins in infants with cows’ milk allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;104:1093–1098.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Sandford A, Weir T, Pare P. The genetics of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:1749–1765.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Sears MR, Greene JM, Willan AR, Taylor DR, Flannery EM, Cowan JO, Herbison GP, Poulton R. Long-term relation between breastfeeding and development of atopy and asthma in children and young adults: a longitudinal study. Lancet 2002;360:901–907.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Shevach EM, McHugh RS, Piccirillo CA, Thornton AM. Control of T-cell activation by CD4+ CD25+ suppressor T cells. Immunol Rev 2001;182:58–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Shirakawa T, Enomoto T, Shimazu S, Hopkin JM. The inverse association between tuberculin responses and atopic disorder. Science 1997;275:77–79.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Srivastava MD, Srivastava A, Brouhard B, Saneto R, Groh-Wargo S, Kubit J. Cytokines in human milk. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol 1996;93:263–287.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Stein RT, Holberg CJ, Morgan WJ, Wright AL, Lombardi E, Taussig L, Martinez FD. Peak flow variability, methacholine responsiveness and atopy as markers for detecting different wheezing phenotypes in childhood. Thorax 1997;52:946–952.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Stene LC, Nafstad P. Relation between occurrence of type 1 diabetes and asthma. Lancet 2001;357:607–608.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Stephens S, Duffy SW, Page C. A longitudinal study of gamma-interferon production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from breast- and bottle-fed infants. Clin Exp Immunol 1986;65:396–400.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ 1989;299:1259–1260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Street NE, Mosmann TR. Functional diversity of T lymphocytes due to secretion of different cytokine patterns. FASEB J 1991;5:171–177.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Sudo N, Sawamura S, Tanaka K, Aiba Y, Kubo C, Koga Y. The requirement of intestinal bacterial flora for the development of an IgE production system fully susceptible to oral tolerance induction. J Immunol 1997;159:1739–1745.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Takahashi T, Yoshida Y, Hatano S, Sugita-Konishi Y, Igimi S, Yajima M, Kojima T, Kanno T, Yonekubo A, Yajima T, Kuwata T. Reactivity of secretory IgA antibodies in breast milk from 107 Japanese mothers to 20 environmental antigens. Biol Neonate 2002;82:238–242.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Taussig LM, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, Morgan WJ, Martinez FD. Tucson Children’s Respiratory Study: 1980 to present. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 111:661–675; quiz 676.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Usha Kiran TS, Jayawickrama NS. Who is responsible for the rising caesarean section rate? J Obstet Gynaecol 2002;22:363–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Vadas P, Wai Y, Burks W, Perelman B. Detection of peanut allergens in breast milk of lactating women. JAMA 2001;285:1746–1748.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. van den Biggelaar AH, van Ree R, Rodrigues LC, Lell B, Deelder AM, Kremsner PG, Yazdanbakhsh M. Decreased atopy in children infected with Schistosoma haematobium: a role for parasite-induced interleukin-10. Lancet 2000;356:1723–1727.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. van Odijk J, Kull I, Borres MP, Brandtzaeg P, Edberg U, Hanson LA, Host A, Kuitunen M, Olsen SF, SkerfVing S, Sundell J, Wille S. Breastfeeding and allergic disease: a multidisciplinary review of the literature (1966–2001) on the mode of early feeding in infancy and its impact on later atopic manifestations. Allergy 2003;58:833–843.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Wahn U, Lau S, Bergmann R, Kulig M, Forster J, Bergmann K, Bauer CP, Guggenmoos-Holzmann I. Indoor allergen exposure is a risk factor for sensitization during the first three years of life. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;99:763–769.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Wang CC, Nolan TJ, Schad GA, Abraham D. Infection of mice with the helminth Strongyloides stercoralis suppresses pulmonary allergic responses to ovalbumin. Clin Exp Allergy 2001;31:495–503.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Warner JA, Miles EA, Jones AC, Quint DJ, Colwell BM, Warner JO. Is deficiency of interferon gamma production by allergen triggered cord blood cells a predictor of atopic eczema? Clin Exp Allergy 1994;24:423–430.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Weiland SK, von Mutius E, Hirsch T, Duhme H, Fritzsch C, Werner B, Husing A, Stender M, Renz H, Leupold W, Keil U. Prevalence of respiratory and atopic disorders among children in the East and West of Germany five years after unification. Eur Respir J 1999;14:862–870.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Wickens K, Pearce N, Crane J, Beasley R. Antibiotic use in early childhood and the development of asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 1999;29:766–771.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Wilkinson JR, Lane SJ, Lee TH. Effects of corticosteroids on cytokine generation and expression of activation antigens by monocytes in bronchial asthma. Int Arch Allergy Appi Immunol 1991;94:220–221.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Wills-Karp M. Immunologic basis of antigen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness. Annu Rev Immunol 1999;17:255–281.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Wills-Karp M, Santeliz J, Karp CL. The germless theory of allergic disease: revisiting the hygiene hypothesis. Nat Rev Immunol 2001;1:69–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Wilson AF, Novey HS, Berke RA, Surprenant EL. Deposition of inhaled pollen and pollen extract in human airways. N Engl J Med 1973;288:1056–1058.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Wold AE. The hygiene hypothesis revised: is the rising frequency of allergy due to changes in the intestinal flora? Allergy 1998;53:20–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Martinez FD, Morgan WJ, Taussig LM. Breast feeding and lower respiratory tract illness in the first year of life. Group Health Medical Associates. BMJ 1989;299:946–949.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Taussig LM, Martinez FD. Factors influencing the relation of infant feeding to asthma and recurrent wheeze in childhood. Thorax 2001a;56:192–197.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Wright AL, Stern DA, Halonen M. The association of allergic sensitization in mother and child in breast-fed and formula-fed infants. Adv Exp Med Biol 2001b;501:249–255.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Xanthou M. Immune protection of human milk. Biol Neonate 1998;74:121–133.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Yoshioka H, Iseki K, Fujita K. Development and differences of intestinal flora in the neonatal period in breastfed and bottle-fed infants. Pediatrics 1983;72:317–321.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Immunobiology, Human Milk Research Program, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA

    Marsha Wills-Karp

  2. Center for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Human Milk Research Program, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH, USA

    Dominique Brandt & Ardythe L. Morrow

Authors
  1. Marsha Wills-Karp
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dominique Brandt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ardythe L. Morrow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

    Larry K. Pickering MD

  2. Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

    Ardythe L. Morrow PhD

  3. Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición, Mexico City, Mexico

    Guillermo M. Ruiz-Palacios MD

  4. Schneider Children’s Hospital at North Shore, Manhasset, New York, USA

    Richard J. Schanler MD

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2004 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this paper

Cite this paper

Wills-Karp, M., Brandt, D., Morrow, A.L. (2004). Understanding the Origin of Asthma and its Relationship to Breastfeeding. In: Pickering, L.K., Morrow, A.L., Ruiz-Palacios, G.M., Schanler, R.J. (eds) Protecting Infants through Human Milk. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 554. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4242-8_16

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4242-8_16

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-3461-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-4242-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation