Normative Values and Tables

  • Kurt Benirschke
  • Peter Kaufmann
Chapter

Abstract

Quantitative structural and biochemical data concerning pregnancy, placental development, and composition of the term placenta are given in Tables 28.1 to 28.10. When examining the tables on placental morphometry and comparing the results from different authors, it is important to note that quantitative structural data are heavily influenced by the mode of sampling and by the preparation of the material. Because of the high degree of maternal and fetal vascularization, the placenta reacts immediately to changes in intravascular pressure. Thus, the mode of birth, the time elapsing from cessation of maternal and fetal blood flows to tissue fixation (see Tables 28.6–28.10), and the nature of cord clamping (see Table 28.8) directly influence the volumetric relations of villi and intervillous space. In particular, parameters such as the width of fetal vessels, degree of fetal vascularization, maternofetal diffusion distance, and trophoblastic thickness are easily affected. Moreover, the composition of the fixative and its osmolarity (see Table 28.10), as well as the mode of fixation (immersion versus perfusion fixation) are of importance. Normally, immersion fixation of the entire placenta or of small pieces is used. The more advanced methods, such as perfusion fixation (Burton et al., 1987) or puncture biopsy of the still maternally perfused placenta during cesarean section (Schweikhart and Kaufmann, 1977; Voigt et al., 1978; Sen et al., 1979), are time-consuming. When studying immersion fixed material, however, one should keep in mind that this material differs quantitatively and qualitatively from the in vivo conditions (see Tables 28.6, 28.9).

Keywords

Human Placenta Placental Weight Perfusion Fixation Term Human Placenta Fetal Vessel 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Abramovich, D.R. The weight of placenta and membranes in early pregnancy. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Commonw. 76:523–526, 1969.Google Scholar
  2. Aherne, W. and Dunnill, M.S.: Morphometry of the human placenta. Br. Med. Bull. 22: 5–8, 1966.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. Auinger, W. and Bauer, P.: Zum Zusammenhang zwischen Kindsgewicht, Placentagewicht, Muttergewicht und Muttergröße. Arch. Gynäkol. 217: 69–83, 1974.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  4. Bacon, B.J., Gilbert, R.D. and Longo, L.D.: Regional anatomy of the term human placenta. Placenta 7: 233–241, 1986.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Baur, R.: Über die Relation zwischen Zottenoberfläche der Geburtsplacenta und Gewicht des Neugeborenen bei verschiedenen Säugetieren. Z. Anat. Entwicklungsgesch. 131: 31–38, 1970.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Bleker, O.P., Kloosterman, G.J., Breur, W. and Mieras, D.J.: The volumetric growth of the human placenta: a longitudinalGoogle Scholar
  7. ultrasonic study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 127: 657–661, 1977.Google Scholar
  8. Bouw, G.M., Stolte, L.A.M., Baak, J.P.A. and Oort, J.: Quantitative morphology of the placenta. 1. Standardization of sampling. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 6: 325–331, 1976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Bouw, G.M., Stolte, L.A.M., Baak, J.P.A. and Oort, J.: Quantitative morphology of the placenta. 3. The growth of the placenta and its relationship to birth weight. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 8: 73–76, 1978.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Boyd, J.D. and Hamilton, W.J.: The Human Placenta. Heffer and Sons, Cambridge, 1970.Google Scholar
  11. Boyd, P.A., Brown, R.A. and Stewart, W.J.: Quantitative structural differences within the normal term human placenta: a pilot study. Placenta 1: 337–344, 1980.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Boyd, P.A., Brown, R.A., Coghill, G.R., Slidders, W. and Stewart, W.J.: Measurement of the mass of syncytiotrophoblast in a range of human placentae using an image analysing computer. Placenta 4: 255–262, 1983.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Branca, A.: Precis d’Embryologie. Librairie J.-B. Baillière et Fils, Paris, 1922.Google Scholar
  14. Burton, G.J., Ingram, S.C. and Palmer, M.E.: The influence of mode of fixation on morphometrical data derived from terminal villi in the human placenta at term: a comparison of immersion and perfusion fixation. Placenta 8: 37–51, 1987.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Cabezon, C., De la Fuente, F., Jurado, M. and Lopez, G.: Histometry of the placental structures involved in the respiratory interchange. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 64: 411–416, 1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Clavero-Nunez, J.A. and Botella-Llusia, J: Measurement of the villus surface in normal and pathologic placentas. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 86: 234–240, 1961.Google Scholar
  17. Clavero-Nunez, J.A. and Botella-Llusia, J: Ergebnisse von Messungen der Gesamtoberfläche normaler und krankhafter Placenten. Arch. Gynäkol. 198: 56–60, 1963.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Ehrhardt, G. and Gerl, D.: Eine einfache Methode zur Bestimmung der Zottenoberfläche von Placenten mit Hilfe der Flächenintegration nach der “Nadelmethode.” Zentralbl. Gynäkol. 92: 728–731, 1970.Google Scholar
  19. Feneley, M.R. and Burton, G.J.: Villous composition and membrane thickness in the human placenta at term: a stereological study using unbiased estimators and optimal fixation techniques. Placenta 12: 131–142, 1991.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Fujinaga, M., Chinn, A., and Shepard, T.H.: Umbilical cord growth in human and rat fetuses: evidence against the “stretch hypothesis. ” Teratology 41: 333–339, 1990.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Glöde, B.: Morphometrische Untersuchungen zur Reifung menschlicher Placentazotten. Medical Thesis, University of Hamburg, 1984.Google Scholar
  22. Goldstein, S.R., Subramanyam, B.R. and Snyder, J.R.: Ratio of gestational sac volume to crown-rump length in early pregnancy. Hum. Pathol. 31: 320–321, 1986.Google Scholar
  23. Hill, L.M., DiNofrio, D.M. and Guzick, D.: Sonographic determination of first trimester umbilical cord length. J. Clin. Ultrasound 22: 435–438, 1994.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Johannigmann, J., Zahn, V. and Thieme, V.: Einführung in die Ultraschalluntersuchung mit dem Vidoson. Elektromedica 2: 1–11, 1972.Google Scholar
  25. Kaufmann, P.: Untersuchungen über die Langhanszellen in der menschlichen Placenta. Z. Zellforsch. 128: 283–302, 1972.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Kaufmann, P.: Der osmotische Effekt der Fixation auf die Placentastruktur. Verh. Anat. Ges. 74: 351–352, 1980.Google Scholar
  27. Kaufmann, P.: Entwicklung der Plazenta. In, Die Plazenta des Menschen. V. Becker, T.H. Schiebler and E Kubli, Eds. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1981.Google Scholar
  28. Kaufmann, P.: Influence of ischemia and artificial perfusion on placental ultrastructure and morphometry. Contrib. Gynecol. Obstet. 13: 18–26, 1985.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  29. Kaufmann, P. and Scheffen, I.: Placental development. In, Neonatal and Fetal Medicine—Physiology and Pathophysiology. R. Polin and W. Fox, Eds., pp. 47–55. Saunders, Orlando, 1992.Google Scholar
  30. Kloos, K. and Vogel, M.: Pathologie der Perinatalperiode. Grundlage, Methodik und erste Ergebnisse einer Kyematopathologie, pp. 1–361. Thieme, Stuttgart, 1974.Google Scholar
  31. Knopp, J.: Das Wachstum der Chorionzotten vom 2. bis 10. Monatsschr. Z. Anat. Entwicklungsgesch. 122: 42–59, 1960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Laga, E.M., Driscoll, S.G. and Munro, H.N.: Quantitative studies of human placenta. 1. Morphometry. Biol. Neonate 23: 231–259, 1973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Lips, F.: Über die Gewichtsverhaeltnisse der neugeborenen Kinder zu ihren Placenten. Medical Thesis, University of Erlangen, 1891.Google Scholar
  34. Mayhew, T.M., Joy, C.F. and Haas, J.D.: Structure-function correlation in the human placenta: the morphometric diffusing capacity for oxygen at full term. J. Anat. 139: 691–708, 1984.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. Mayhew, T.M., Jackson, M.R. and Haas, J.D.: Microscopical morphology of the human placenta and its effects on oxygen diffusion: a morphometric model. Placenta 7: 121–131, 1986.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Molteni, R.A., Stys, S.J. and Battaglia, F.C.: Relationship of fetal and placental weight in human beings: fetal/placental weight ratios at various gestational ages and birth weight distributions. J. Reprod. Med. 21: 327–334, 1978.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. Naeye, R.L.: Do placental weights have clinical significance? Hum. Pathol. 18: 387–391, 1987.Google Scholar
  38. Naeye, R.L. and Tafari N.: Noninfectious disorders of the placenta, fetal membranes and umbilical cord. In, Risk Factors in Pregnancy and Disease of the Fetus and Newborn, pp. 145–172. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1983.Google Scholar
  39. O’Rahilly, R.: Developmental stages in human embryos. Part A, Publication. 631. Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C., 1973.Google Scholar
  40. Sala, M.A., Valeri, V. and Matheus, M.: Stereological analysis of syncytiotrophoblast from human mature placenta. Arch. Anat. Microsc. 72: 99–106, 1983.Google Scholar
  41. Schuhmann, R., Stoz, E. and Maier, M.: Histometric investigations in placentones (materno-fetal circulation units) of human placentae. Trophoblast Res. 3: 3–16, 1988.Google Scholar
  42. Schweikhart, G. and Kaufmann, P.: Zur Abgrenzung normaler, artefizieller und pathologischer Strukturen in reifen menschlichen Plazentazotten. I. Ultrastruktur des Syncytiotrophoblasten. Arch. Gynäkol. 222: 213–230, 1977.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Sen, D.K., Kaufmann, P. and Schweikhart, G.: Classification of human placental villi. II. Morphometry. Cell Tissue Res. 200: 425–434, 1979.Google Scholar
  44. Teasdale, F.: Functional significance of the zonal morphologic differences in the normal human placenta. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 130: 773–781, 1978.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. Teasdale, F. and Jean-Jacques, G.: Morphometric evaluation of the microvillous surface enlargement factor in the human placenta from mid-gestation to term. Placenta 6: 375–381, 1985.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Voigt, S., Kaufmann, P. and Schweikhart, G.: Zur Abgrenzung normaler, artefizieller und pathologischer Strukturen in reifen menschlichen Plazentazotten. II. Morphometrische Untersuchungen zum Einfluss des Fixationsmodus. Arch. Gynäkol. 226: 347–362, 1978.Google Scholar
  47. Weissman, A., Jakobi, E, Bronshtein, M., and Goldstein, I.: Sonographic measurements of the umbilical cord and vessels during normal pregnancies. J. Ultrasound Med. 13: 11–14, 1994.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. Winckel, F.K.L.W.: Lehrbuch der Geburtshilfe. 2nd Ed. Veit, Leipzig, 1893.Google Scholar
  49. Wördehoff, B.: Zur Bestimmung der Zottenoberfläche der mensch Plazenta. Medical Thesis, Würzburg, 1971.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2000

Authors and Affiliations

  • Kurt Benirschke
    • 1
  • Peter Kaufmann
    • 2
  1. 1.University Medical CenterUniversity of California, San DiegoSan DiegoUSA
  2. 2.Institut für Anatomie der Medizinischen FakultätRheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule AachenAachenGermany

Personalised recommendations