Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Biotic Influences

  • Chapter
Plant Physiological Ecology

Abstract

Symbiosis is the “living together” of two or more organisms. In its widest sense, symbiotic associations include parasitic and commensal as well as mutually beneficial partnerships. As is common in the ecophysiological literature, however, we use the term symbiosis in a narrow sense and only refer to mutually beneficial associations between higher plants and microorganisms. Mutual benefits may not always be easy to determine, and certainly not for the microsymbiont. In this chapter benefits for the macrosymbiont (“host”) are often expressed in terms of biomass. In an ecological context, benefits in terms of “fitness” may be more relevant, but this is rarely done. In the mutually beneficial associations discussed in this chapter nutrients or specific products of the partners are shared between two or three partners: the macrosymbiont and the microsymbiont(s).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References and Further Reading

  • Allen, E.B. & Allen, M.F. (1984) Competition betweer plants of different successional stages: Mycorrhizae as regulators. Can J. Bot. 62:2625–2629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, E.B. & Allen, M.F. (1986) Water relations of xeric grasses in the field: Interactions of mycorrhizas and competition. New Phytol. 104:559–571

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baas, R., Van der Werf, A., & Lambers, H. (1989) Root respiration and growth in Plantago major as affected by vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection. Plani Physiol. 91:227–232.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bacon, C.W. & De Battista, J. (1991) Endophytic fungi of grasses. In: Handbook of applied mycology. Vol. 1: Soil and plants, D.K. Arora, B. Rai, K.G. Mukerji, & G.R. Knudsen (eds). Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 231–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergersen, F.J., Brockwell, J., Gault, R.R., Morthorpe, L., Peoples, M.B., & Turner, G.L. (1989) Effects of available soil nitrogen and rates of inoculation on nitrogen fixation by irrigated soybeans and evaluation of the δ15N methods for measurements. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 40:763–780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, A.M. (1994) Recent developments in the actinorhizal symbioses. Plant Soil 161:135–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bethlenfalvay, G.J., Pacovsky, R.S., Bayne, H.G., & Stafford, A.E. (1982) Interactions between nitrogen fixation, mycorrhizal colonization, and host-plant growth in the Phaseolus-Rhizobium-Glomus symbiosis. Plant Physiol. 70:446–450.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bethlenfalvay, G.J., Reyes-Solis, M.G., Camel, S.B., & Ferrera-Cerrato, R. (1991) Nutrient transfer between the root zones of soybean and maize plants connected by common mycorrhizal mycelium. Physiol. Plant. 82:423–432.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blee, K.A. & Anderson, A.J. (1996) Defense-related transcript accumulation in Phaseolus vulgaris L. colonized by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices Schenck & Smith. Plant Physiol. 110:675–688.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bobbink, R. (1991) Effects of nutrient enrichment in dutch grassland. J. Appl. Ecol. 28:28–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bohlool, B.B., Ladha, J.K., Garrity, D.P., & George, T. (1992) Biological nitrogen fixation for sustainable agriculture. Plant Soil 141:1–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolan, N.S. (1992) A critical review on the role of mycorrhizal fungi in the uptake of phosphorus by plants. Plant Soil 134: 189–207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolan, N.S., Robson, A.D., & Barrow, N.J. (1987) Effect of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza on the availability of iron phosphates to plants. Plant Soil 99:401–410.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boller, B.C. & Nösberger, J. (1987) Symbiotically fixed nitrogen from field-grown white and red clover mixed with ryegrass at low levels of 15N-fertilization. Plant Soil 104:219–226.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S.M., Oparka, K.J., Sprent, J.I., & Walsh, K.N.B. (1995) Symplasmic transport in soybean root nodules. Soil Biol. Biochem. 27:387–399.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cavalcante, V.A. & Döbereiner, J. (1988) A new acidtolerant nitrogen fixing bacterium associated with sugarcane. Plant Soil 108:23–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiarello, N., Huckman, J.C., & Mooney, H.A. (1982) Endomycorrhizal role for interspecific transport of phosphorus in a community of annual plants. Science 217:941–943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen-Weniger, C., Groneman, A.F., & Van Veen, J.A. (1992) Associative N2 fixation and root exudation of organic acids from wheat cultivars of different aluminium tolerance. Plant Soil 139:167–174.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clay, K. (1988) Fungal endophytes of grasses: A defensive mutualism between plants and fungi. Ecology 69:10–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clay, K., Marks, S., & Cheplick, G.P. (1993) Effects of insect herbivory and fungal endophyte infection on competitive interactions among grasses. Ecology 74: 1767–1777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, E., Okon, Y., Kigel, J., Nur, I., & Henis, Y. (1980) Increase in dry weight and total nitrogen content in Zea mays and Setaria italica associated with nitrogen-fixing Azospirillum. Plant Physiol. 66:746–749.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coronado, C., Zuanazzi, J.A.S., Sallaud, C., Quirion, J.-C., Esnault, R., Husson, H.-P., Kondorosi, A., & Ratet, P. (1995) Alfalfa root flavonoid production is nitrogen regulated. Plant Physiol. 108:533–542.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Day, D.A. & Copeland, L. (1991) Carbon metabolism and compartmentation in nitrogen-fixing legume nodules. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 29:185–201.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dewan, M.M. & Sivasithamparam, K. (1988) A plantgrowth-promoting sterile fungus from wheat and ryegrass roots with potential for suppressing take-all. New Phytol. 91:687–692.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz, C.L., Melchers, L.S., Hooykaas, P.J.J., Lugtenberg, B.J.J., & Kijne, J.W. (1989) Root lectin as a determinant of host-plant specificity in the Rhizobium-legume symbiosis. Nature 338:579–581.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, K.W., Pate, J.S., & Kuo, J. (1987) The Western Australian fully subterranean orchid Rhizanthella gardneri. In: Orchid biology. Reviews and perspectives, T. Arddiffi (ed) Timber Press Portland pp. 37–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Dong, Z., Canny, M.J., McCulley, M.E., Roboredo, M.R., Cabadilla, C.F., Ortega, E., & Rodes, R. (1994) A nitrogen-fixing endophyte of sugarcane stems. A new role for the apoplast. Plant Physiol. 105:1139–1147.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Douds, D.D., Johnson, C.R., & Koch, K.E. (1988) Carbon cost of the fungal symbiont relative to net leaf P accumulation in a split-root VA mycorrhizal symbiosis. Plant Physiol. 86:491–496.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Downie, J.A. (1994) Signalling strategies for nodulation of legumes by rhizobia. Trends Microbiol. 9:318–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duc, G., Trouvelot, A., Gianinazzi-Pearson, V., & Gianinazzi, S. (1989) First report of non-mycorrhizal plant mutants (Myc) obtained in pea (Pisum sativum) and fababean (Vicia faba L.). Plant Sci. 60:215–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eissenstat, D.M. (1990) A comparison of phosphorus and nitrogen transfer between plants of different phosphorus status. Oecologia 82:342–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eissenstat, D.M., Graham, J.H., Syvertsen, J.P., & Drouillard, D.L. (1993) Carbon economy of sour orange in relation to mycorrhizal colonization and phosphorus status. Ann. Bot. 71:1–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ezawa, T., Saito, M., & Yoshida, T. (1995) Comparison of phosphatase localization in the intraradical hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Glomus spp. and Gigasppora spp. Plant Soil 176:57–63.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer Walter, L.E., Hartnett, D.C., Hetrick, B.A.D., & Schwab, A.P. (1996) Interspecific nutrient transfer in a tallgrass prairie plant community. Am. J. Bot. 83:180–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francis, R. & Read, D.J. (1994) The contribution of mycorrhizal fungi to the determination of plant community structure. Plant Soil 159:11–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredeen, A.L. & Terry, N. (1988) Influence of vesiculararbuscular mycorrhizal infection and soil phosphorus level on growth and carbon metabolism of soybean. Can. J. Bot. 66:2311–2316.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gault, R.R., Peoples, M.B., Turner, G.L., Lilley, D.M., Brockwell, J., & Bergersen, F.J. (1995) Nitrogen fixation by irrigated lucerne during the first three years after establishment. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 56:1401–1425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J.H. & Eissenstat, D.M. (1994) Host genotype and the formation of VA mycorrhizae. Plant Soil 159:179–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, J.H., Eissenstat, D.M., & Drouillard, D.L. (1991) On the relationship between a plant’s mycorrhizal dependency and rate of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization. Funct. Ecol. 5:773–779.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haahtela, K., Laakso, T., Nurmiaho-Lassila, E.-L., & Korhonen, T.K. (1988) Effects of inoculation of Poa pratensis and Triticum aestivum with root-associated, N2- fixing Klebsiella, Enterobacter and Azospirillum. Plant Soil 106:239–248.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Handley, L.L. & Raven, J.A. (1992) The use of natural abundance of nitrogen isotopes in plant physiology and ecology. Plant Cell Environ. 15:965–985.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Handley, L.L., Daft, M.J., Wilson, J., Scrimgeour, C.M., Ingelby, K., & Sattar, M.A. (1993) Effects of the ectoand VA-mycorrhizal fungi Hydnagium carneum and Glomus clarum on the δ15N and δ13C values of Eucalyptus globulus and Ricinus communis. Plant Cell Environ. 16: 375–382.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, M.J. (1997) The arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis: An underground association. Trends Plant Sci. 2:54–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartwig, U.A., Maxwell, C.A., Joseph, C.M., & Phillips, D.A. (1990) Chrysoeriol and luteolin released from alfalfa seeds induce nod genes in Rhizobium meliloti. Plant Physiol. 92:116–122.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heap, A.J. & Newman, E.I. (1980) Links between roots by hyphae of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas. New Phytol. 85:169–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hetrick, B.A.D., Wilson, G.W., & Hartnett, D.C. (1989) Relationship between mycorrhizal dependence and competitive ability of two tallgrass prairie species. Can J. Bot. 67:2608–2615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Högberg, P. (1990) 15N natural abundance as a possible marker of the ectomycorrhizal habit of trees in mixed African woodlands. New Phytol. 115:483–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Högberg, P. & Alexander, I.J. (1995) Roles of root symbioses in African woodland and forest: Evidence from 15N abundance and foliar analysis. J. Ecol. 83:217–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, S. & Layzell, D.B. (1993) Gas exchange of legume nodules and the regulation of nitrogenase activity. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 44:483–511.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hutton, B.J., Dixon, K.W., & Sivasithamparam, K. (1994) Ericoid endophytes of Western Australian heaths (Epacridaceae). New Phytol. 127:557–655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutton, B.J., Sivasithamparam, K., Dixon, K.W., & Pate, J.S. (1996) Pectic zymograms and water stress tolerance of endophytic fungi isolated from Western Australian heaths (Epacridaceae). Ann. Bot. 77:399–404.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Israel, D.W. (1987) Investigation of the role of phosphorus in symbiotic dinitrogen fixation. Plant Physiol. 84:835–840.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jakobsen, I. & Rosendahl, L. (1990) Carbon flow into soil and external hyphae from roots of mycorrhizal cucumber plants. New Phvtol. 115:77–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jakobsen, I., Joner, E.J., & Larsen, J. (1994) Hyphal phosphorus transport, a keystone to mycorrhizal enhancement of plant growth. In: Impact of arbuscular mycorrhizas on sustainable agriculture and natural ecosystems, S. Gianinazzi & H. Schuepp (eds). Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp. 133–146.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • James, E.K., Reis, V.M., Olivars, F.L., Baldani, J.I., & Döbereiner, J. (1994). Infection of sugar cane by the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Acetobacter diazotrophicum. T. Exp. Bot. 45:757–766.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johansen, A., Jakobsen, I., & Jensen, E.S. (1994) Hyphal N transport by a vesicular-arbuscular fungus associated with cucumber grown at three nitrogen levels. Plant Soil 160:1–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joner, E.J. & Jakobsen, I. (1995) Uptake of 32P from labelled organic matter by mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) Plant Soil 172:221–227.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, B.N., Layzell, D.B., & Shelp, B.J. (1997) Role of oxygen limitation and nitrate metabolism in the nitrate inhibition of nitrogen fixation by pea. Physiol. Plant. 101:45–50.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kapulnik, Y. (1991) Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing microorganisms. In: Plant roots: The hidden half, Y. Waisel, A. Eshel & U. Kafkaki (eds). Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 703–716.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kearns, A., Whelan, J., Young, S., Elthon, T.E., & Day, D.A. 1992. Tissue-specific expression of the alternative oxidase in soybean and siratro. Plant Physiol. 99:712–717.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, I.R. & Tchan, Y.-T. (1992) Biological nitrogen fixation in non-leguminous field crops: Recent advances. Plant Soil 141:93–118.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koch, K.E. & Johnson, C.R. (1984) Photosynthetic partitioning in split-root citrus seedlings with mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal root systems. Plant Physiol. 75:26–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koide, R.T. & Schreiner, R.P. (1992) Regulation of the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 43:557–581.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koide, R.T., Huenneke, L.F., Hamburg, S.P., & Mooney, H.A. (1988) Effects of applications of fungicide, phosphorus and nitrogen on the structure and productivity of an annual serpentine plant community. Funct. Ecol. 2:335–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krikun, J. (1991) Mycorrhizae in agricultural crops. In: Plant roots: The hidden half, Y. Waisel, A. Eshel & U. Kafkaki (eds). Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 767–786.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwon, D.-K. & Beevers, H. (1992) Growth of Sesbania rostrata (Brem) with stem nodules under controlled conditions. Plant Cell Environ. 15:939–945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambers, H., Atkin, O.K., & Scheurwater, I. (1996) Respiratory patterns in roots in relation to their functioning. In: Plant roots: The hidden half, Y. Waisel, A. Eshel, & U. Kafkaki (eds). Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 323–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leake, J.R. (1994) The biology of myco-heterotrophic “saprophytic” plants. New Phytol. 127:171–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindblad, P., Atkins, C.A., & Pate, J.S. (1991) N2- fixation by freshly isolated Nostoc from coralloid roots of the cycad Macrozamia riedlei (Fisch. ex Gaud.) Gardn. Plant Physiol. 95:753–759.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marschner, H. (1995) Mineral nutrition of higher plants. Second edition. Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marschner, H. & Dell, B. (1994) Nutrient uptake in mycorrhizal symbiosis. Plant Soil 159:89–102.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, C.A., Hartwig, U.A., Joseph, C.M., & Phillips, D.A. (1989) A chalcone and two related flavonoids released from alfalfa roots induce nod genes of Rhizobium meliloti. Plant Physiol. 91:842–847.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mellor, R.B. & Collinge, D.B. (1995) A simple model based on known plant defence reactions is sufficient to explain most aspects of nodulation. J. Exp. Bot. 46: 1–18.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mylona, P., Pawlowski, K., & Bisseling, T. (1995) Symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Plant Cell 7:869–885.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nadelhoffer, K., Shaver, G., Fry, B., Giblin, A., Johnson, L., & McKane, R. (1996) 15N natural abundances and N use by tundra plants. Oecologia 107:386–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, E.I., Eason, W.R., Eissenstat, D.M., & Ramos, M.I.F.R. (1992) Interactions between plants: The role of mycorrhizae. Mycorrhiza 1:47–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ocampo, J.A., Martin, J., & Hayman, D.S. (1980) Influence of plant interactions on vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infections. I. Host and non-host plants grown together. New Phytol. 84:27–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, B.A. (1989) Comparison of photosynthesis and productivity of Gunnera tinctora Molina (Mirbel) with and without the phycobiont Nostoc punctiforme L. Plant Cell Environ. 12:941–946.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palus, J.A., Borneman, J., Ludden, P.W., & Triplett, E.W. (1996) A diazotrophic bacterial endophyte isolated from stems of Zea mays L. and Zea luxurians Iltis and Doebley. Plant Soil 186:135–142.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pate, J.S. (1980) Transport and partitioning of nitrogenous solute. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 31:313–340.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pate, J.S., Lindblad, P., & Atkins, C.A. (1988) Pathway of assimilation and transfer of fixed nitrogen in coralloid roots of cycad-Nostoc symbioses. Planta 176:461–471.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Penas, J.I., Sanchez-Diaz, M., Aguirreola, J., & Becana, M. (1988) Increased stress tolerance of nodule activity in Medicago-Rhizobium-Glomus symbiosis under drought. J. Plant Physiol. 79:79–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, S., Eissenstat, D.M., Graham, J.H., Williams, K., & Hodge, N.C. (1993) Growth depression in mycorrhizal citrus at high-phosphorus supply. Analysis of carbon costs. Plant Physiol. 101:1063–1071.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peoples, M.B., Palmer, B., Lilley, D.M., Duc, L.M., & Herridge, D.F. (1996) Application of 15N and xylem ureide methods for assessing N2 fixation of three shrub legumes periodically pruned for forage. Plant Soil 182:125–137.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C.A. & Enstone, D.E. (1996) Functions of passage cells in the endodermis and exodermis of roots. Physiol. Plant. 97:592–598.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, R.L. & Bonfante, P. (1994) Comparative structure of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas and ectomycorrhizas. Plant Soil 159:79–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, D.A., Dakora, F.D., Sande, E., Joseph, C.M., & Zon, J. (1994) Synthesis, release, and transmission of alfalfa signal to rhizobial symbionts. Plant Soil. 161:69–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ratnayake, M., Leonard, R.T., & Menge, J.A. (1978) Root exudation in relation to supply of phosphorus and its possible relevance to mycorrhizal formation. New Phy Sinl

    Google Scholar 

  • Read, D.J. (1991) Mycorrhizas in ecosystems. Experientia 47:376–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, A.E., Djordjevic, M.A., Rolfe, B.G., & Simpson, R.J. (1988) Effects of pH, Ca and Al on the exudation from clover seedlings of compounds that induce the expression of nodulation genes in Rhizobium trifolii. Plant Soil 109:37–47.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rolfe, B.G. & Gresshoff, P.M. (1988) Genetic analysis of legume nodule initiation. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 39:297–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau, J.V.D. & Reid, C.P.P. (1991) Effects of phosphorus fertilization and mycorrhizal development on phosphorus nutrition and carbon balance of loblolly pine. New Phytol. 92:75–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Lozana, J.M. & Azcón, R. (1995) Hyphal contribution to water uptake in mycorrhizal plants as affected by the fungal species and water status. Physiol. Plant. 95:472–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryle, G.J.A., Powell, C.E., & Gordon, A.J. (1985) Shortterm changes in CO2-evolution associated with nitrogenase activity in white clover in response to defoliation and photosynthesis. J. Exp. Bot. 36:634–643.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez-Diaz, M. & Honrubia, M. (1994) Water relations and alleviation of drought stress in mycorrhizal plants. In: Impact of arbuscular mycorrhizas on sustainable agriculture and natural ecosystems, S. Gianinazzi & H. Schupp (eds). Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp. 167–178.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez-Diaz, M., Pardo, M., Antolin, M., Pena, J., & Aguirreola, J. (1990) Effect of water stress on photosynthetic activity in the Medicago-Rhizobium-Glomus symbiosis. Plant Sci. 71:215–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, I.R. & Koide, R.T. (1994) Nutrient acquisition and community structure in co-occurring mycotrophic and non-mycotrophic oldfield annuals. Funct. Ecol. 80;77–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulze, E.-D., Chapin III, F.S., & Gebauer, G. (1995) Nitrogen nutrition and isotope differences among life forms at the northern treeline of Alaska. Oecologia 100:406–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S.E. & Gianinazzi-Pearson, V. (1988) Physiological interactions between symbionts in vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Mol. Biol. 39:221–244.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S.E. & Read, D.J. (1997) Mycorrhizal symbiosis. Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S.E., Gianinazzi-Pearson, V., Koide, R., & Cairney, J.W.G. (1994) Nutrient transport in mycorrhizas: Structure, physiology and consequences for efficiency of the symbiosis. Plant Soil 159:103–113.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S.E., Robson, A.D., & Abbott, L.K. (1992) The involvement of mycorrhizas in assessment of genetically dependent efficiency of nutrient uptake and use. Plant Soil 146:169–179.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snellgrove, R.C., Splittstoesser, W.E., Stribley, D.P., & Tinker, P.B. (1982) The distribution of carbon and the demand of the fungal symbiont in leek plants with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas. New Phytol. 92:75–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spaink, H.P. (1995) The molecular basis of infection and nodulation by rhizobia: The ins and outs of sympathogenesis. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 33:345–368.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sprent, J.I., Geoghegan, I.E., Whitty, P.W., & James, E.K. (1996) Natural abundance of 15N and 13C in nodulated legumes and other plants in the cerrado and neighbouring regions of Brazil. Oecologia 105:440–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sturz, A.V. (1995) The role of endophytic bacteria during seed piece decay and potato tuberization. Plant Soil 172:257–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ta, T.C. & Faris, M.A. (1988) Effects of environmental conditions on the fixation and transfer of nitrogen from alfalfa to associated timothy. Plant Soil 107:25–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tester, M., Smith, S.E., & Smith, F.A. (1987) The phenomenon of “nonmycorrhizal” plants. Can. J. Bot. 65:419–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B.D., Robson, A.D., & Abbott, L.K. (1986) Effects of phosphorus on the formation of mycorrhizas by Gigaspora calospora and Glomus fasciculatum in relation to root carbohydrates. New Phytol. 103:751–765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tisdall, J.M. (1994) Possible role of soil microorganisms in aggregation in soils. Plant Soil 159:115–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobar, R., Azcón, R., & Barea, J.-M. (1994) Improved nitrogen uptake and transport from 15N-labelled nitrate by external hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhiza under waterstressed conditions. New Phytol. 126:119–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trappe, J.M. (1987) Phyllogenetic and ecological aspects of mycotrophy in angiosperms from an evolutionary standpoint. In: Ecophysiology of VA mycorrhizas, G.R. Safir (ed). CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 5–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triplett, E.W. (1996) Diazotrophic endophytes: progress and prospects for nitrogen fixation in monocots. Plant Soil 186:29–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull, M.H., Goodall, R., & Stewart, G.R. (1995) The impact of mycorrhizal colonization upon nitrogen source utilization and metabolism in seedlings of Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden and Eucalyptus maculata Hook. Plant Cell Environ. 18:1386–1394.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Udvardi, M.K. & Day, D.A. (1997) Metabolite transport across symbiotic membranes of legume nodules. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 48:493–523.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vance, C.P. (1995) Root-bacteria interactions. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation. In: Plant roots: The hidden half, Y. Waisel, A. Eshel, & U. Kafkaki (eds). Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 723–755.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vance, C.P., Egli, M.A., Griffith, S.M., & Miller, S.S. (1988) Plant regulated aspects of nodulation and N2 fixation. Plant Cell Environ. 11:413–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Rhijn, P. & Vanderleyden, J. (1995) The Rhizobiumplant symbiosis. Microbiol. Rev. 59:124–142.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vierheilig, H., Iseli, B., Alt, M., Raikhel, N., Wiemken, A., & Boller, T. (1996) Resistance of Urtica dioica to mycorrhizal colonization: A possible involvement of Urtica dioica agglutinin. Plant Soil 183:131–136.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volpin, H., Elkind, Y., Okon, Y., & Kapulnik, Y. (1994) A vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (Glomus intraradices) induces a defense response in alfalfa roots. Plant Physiol. 104:683–689.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, L.F. & Day, D.A. (1997) The peribacteroid membrane. Physiol. Plant. 100:30–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, L.F., Tyerman, S.D., Salom, C.L., & Day, D.A. (1995) Transport of fixed nitrogen across symbiotic membranes of legume nodules. Symbiosis 19:141–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilcox, H.E. (1991) Mycorrhizae. In: Plant roots: The hidden half, Y. Waisel, A. Eshel, & U. Kafkaki (eds). Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 731–765.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, D. (1993) Fungal endophytes: Out of sight but should not be out of mind. Oikos 68:279–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoneyama, T., Muraoka, T., Kim, T.H., Decanay, E.V., & Nakanishi, Y. (1997) The natural 15N abundance of sugarcane and neigbouring plants in Brazil, the Philippines and Miyako (Japan). Plant Soil 189:239–244.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zaat, S.A.J., Wijfelman, C.A., Mulders, I.H.M., Van Brussel, A.A.N., & Lugtenberg, B.J.J. (1988) Root exudates of various host plants of Rhizobium leguminosarum contain different sets of inducers of Rhizobium nodulation genes. Plant Physiol. 88:1298–1303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, M.P., Clausen T.P., MacLean, S.F., Redman, A.M., & Reichardt, P.B. (1997) Diversity of structure and antiherbivore activity in condensed tannins. Ecology 78:1696–1712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergelson, J. & Purrington, C.B. (1996) Surveying patterns in the cost of resistance in plants. Am. Nat. 148:536–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, A.J., Chapin III, F.S., & Mooney, H.A. (1985) Resource limitation in plants-an economic analogy. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 16:363–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruin, J., Sabelis, M.W., & Dicke, M. (1995) Do plants tap SOS signals from their infested neighbours. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10:167–170.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, J.P. & Kuropat, P.J. (1980) Selection of winter forage by subarctic browsing vertebrates: The role of plant chemistry. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11:261–285.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, J.P., Chapin III, F.S., & Klein, D.R. (1983) Carbon/ nutrient balance of boreal plants in relation to vertebrate herbivory. Oikos 40:357–368.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, J.P., Chapin III F.S., Reichardt, P., & Clausen, T. (1985) Adaptation to resource availability as a determinant of chemical defense strategies in woody plants. In: Chemically mediated interactions plants and other organisms, G.A. Cooper-Driver, T. Swain, & E.E. Conn (eds). Plenum Press, New York, pp. 219–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, J.P., Tahvanainen, J., Sulkinoja, M., Julkunen-Titto, R., Reichardt, P., & Green, T. (1989) Biogeographic evidence for the evolution of chemical defense by boreal birch and willow against mammalian browsing. Am. Nat. 134:20–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, J.P., Heitkonig, I., Kuropat, P., & Owen-Smith, N. (1991) Effects of severe defoliation on the long-term resistance to insect attack and on leaf chemistry in six woody species of the southern African savanna. Am. Nat. 137:50–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, J.P., Reichardt, P.B., Clausen, T.P., Provenza, F.D., & Kuropat, P.J. (1992) woody plant-mammal interactions. In: Herbivores: their interactions with secondary plant metabolites. Vol II, Ecological and evolutionary processes, 2nd edition, G.A. Rosenthal (ed). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 343–370.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cates, R.G. & Orians, G.H. (1975) Successional status and the palatability of plants to generalized herbivores. Ecology 56:410–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C.-H. & Kuo, Y.-L. (1986) Allelopathic research of subtropical vegetation in Taiwan. III. Allelopathic exclusion of understory by Leucaena leucophylla (Lam.) de Wit. J. Chem. Ecology 12:1431–1448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chrispeels, M.J. & Raikhel, N.V. (1991) Lectins, lectin genes, and their role in plant defense. Plant Cell 3:1–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clausen, T.P., Reichardt, P.B., Bryant, J.P., Werner, R.A., Post, K., & Frisby, K. (1989) A chemical model for shortterm induction in quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) foliage against herbivores. J. Chem. Ecol. 15:2335–2346.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coley, P.D. (1986) Costs and benefits of defense by tannins in a neotropical tree. Oecologia 70:238–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coley, P.D., Bryant, J.P., & Chapin III F.S. (1985) Resource availability and plant anti-herbivore defense. Science 230:895–899.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Jong, T. (1995) Why fast-growing plants do not bother about defence. Oikos 74:545–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dicke, M. & Sabelis, M.W. (1989) Does it pay to advertize for body guards? In: Causes and consequences of variation in growth rate and productivity of higher plants, H. Lambers, M.L. Cambridge, H. Konings, & T.L. Pons (eds). SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, pp. 341–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ernst, W.H.O. (1990) Ecological aspects of sulfur metabolism. In: Sulfur nutrition and sulfur assimilation in higher plants, H. Rennenberg, C. Brunold, L.J. De Kok, & I. Stulen (eds). SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, pp. 131–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ersek, T. & Kiiraly, Z. (1986) Phytoalexins: Warding-off compounds in plants? Physiol. Plant. 68:343–346.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Etzler, M.E. (1985) Plant lectins: Molecular and biological aspects. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 36:209–234.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feng, Z. & Hartel, P.G. (1996) Factors affecting production of COS and CS2 in Leucaena and Mimosa species. Plant Soil 178:215–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gershenzon, J. (1984) Changes in the levels of plant secondary metabolites under water and nutrient stress. In: Phytochemical adaptations to stress, B.N. Timmermann, C. Steelink, & F.A. Leowus (eds). Plenum Press, New York, pp. 273–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, J.S., Stinissen, H.M., Peumans, W.J., & Chrispeels, M.J. (1986) Sambucus nigra agglutinin is located in protein bodies in the phloem parenchyma of the bark. Planta 167:275–278.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hahn, M.G., Bonhoff, A., & Griesenbach, H. (1985) Quantitative localization of the phytoalexin glyceollin I in relation to fungal hyphae in soybean roots infected with Phytophtora megasperma f. sp. glycinea. Plant Physiol. 77:591–601.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harborne, J.B. (1988) Introduction to Ecological Biochemistry. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, M.R., Chaddock, J.A., & Bonness, M.S. (1996) The structure and function of ribosome-inactivating proteins. Trends Plant Sci. 1:254–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann, T., Ehmke, A., Eilert, U., von Bortsel, K., & Theurig, C. (1989) Sites of synthesis, translocation and accumulation of pyrrolizidine alkaloid N-oxides in Senecio vulgaris L. Planta 177:98–107.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hashimoto, T. & Yamada, Y. (1994) Alkaloid biogenesis: molecular aspects. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 45:257–285.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haukioja, E. (1980) On the role of plant defenses in the fluctuations of herbivore populations. Oikos 35:202–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haukioja, E. & Neuvonen, S. (1985) Induced long-term resistance of birch foliage against defoliators: Defensive or incidental. Ecology 66:1303–1308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinstein, P.F. & Chang, C.-J. (1994) Taxol. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 45:663–674.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herms, D.A. & Mattson, W.J. (1992) The dilemma of plants: To grow or defend. Quart. Rev. Biol. 67:283–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howe, H.F. & Westley, L.C. (1988) Ecological relationships of plants and animals. Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, S. (1990) Antelope activate the acacia’s alarm system. New Scientist 127:19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishimoto, M. & Chrispeels, M.J. (1996) Protective mechanism of the Mexican bean weevil against high levels of a-amylase inhibitor in the common bean. Plant Physiol. 111:393–401.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, H., Blein, J.-P., Bonnet, P., & Ricci, P. (1996) Physiological and molecular characteristics of elicitininduced systemic acquired resistance in tobacco. Plant Physiol. 110:365–376.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kimmerer, T.W. & Potter, D.A. (1987) Nutritional quality of specific leaf tissues and selective feeding by a specialist leafminer. Oecologia 71:548–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koch, K.E. (1996) Carbohydrate-modulated gene expression in plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 47:509–540.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lambers, H. & Poorter, H. (1992) Inherent variation in growth rate between higher plants: A search for physiological causes and ecological consequences. Adv. Ecol. Res. 21:187–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, T.-W. C., Williams, D.H., Barna, J.C.J., Foti, S., & Oelrichs, P.B. (1986) Structural studies on the peptide moroidin from Laporta moroides. Tetrahedron 42:3333–3348.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberei, R., Biehl, B., Giesemann, A., & Junqueira, N.T.V. (1989) Cyanogenesis inhibits active defense reactions in plants. Plant Physiol. 90:33–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loomis, W.E. (1932) Growth-differentiation balance vs. carbohydrate-nitrogen ratio. Proc. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 29:240–245.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, J.M. & Roberts, L.M. (1996) The intracellular transport of ricin: Why mammalian cells are killed and how Ricinus cells survive. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 34:253–261.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lorio, P.L., Jr. (1986) Growth-differentiation balance: A basis for understanding southern pine beetle-tree interactions. For. Ecol. Manage. 14:259–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattiacci, L., Dicke, M., & Posthumus, M.A. (1995) (βgalactosidase: An elicitor of herbivore-induced plant odor that attracts host-searching parasitic wasps. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:2036–2040.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McKey, D., Waterman, P.G., Mbi, C.N., Gartlan, J.S., & Struhsaker, T.T. (1978) Phenolic content of vegetation in two African rain forests: Ecological implications. Science 202:61–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, J.M., White, W.L.B., & Sayre, R.T. (1995) Cyanogenesis in cassava (Mannihot esculenta Crantz. J. Exp. Bot. 46:731–741.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Northup, R.R., Yu, Z., Dahlgren, R.A., & Vogt, K.A. (1995) Polyphenol control of nitrogen release from pine litter. Nature 377:227–229.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peumans, W.J. & Van Damme, E.J.M. (1995) Lectins as plant defense proteins. Plant Physiol. 109:347–352.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plollard, A.J. & Briggs, D. (1984) Genecological studies of Urtica dioica L. III Stinging hairs and plant-herbivore interactions. New Phytol. 97:507–522

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poorter, H. & Bergkotte, M. (1992) Chemical composition of 24 wild species differing in relative growth rate. Plant Cell Environ. 15:221–229.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poulton, J.E. (1990) Cyanogenesis in plants. Plant Physiol. 94:401–405.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pueyo, J.J. & Delgado-Salinas, A. (1997) Presence of aamylase inhibitor in some members of the subtribe Phaselinae (Phaseoleae: Fabaceae). Am. J. Bot. 84:79–84.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, A. & Tang, C.-S. (eds) The science of allelopathy. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raikhel, N.V., Lee, H.-I., & Broekaert, W.G. (1993) Structure and function of chitin-binding proteins. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 44:591–615.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, J.A., Hejl, A.M., Einhellig, F.A., & Thomas, J.A. (1992) Sorgoleone from root exudate inhibits mitochondrial functions. J. Chem. Ecol. 18:197–207.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rhoades, D.F. (1985a) Offensive-defensive interactions between herbivores and plants: Their relevance in herbivore population dynamics and ecological theory. Am. Nat. 125:205–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhoades, D.F. (1985b) Pheromonal communication between plants. In: Chemically mediated interactions between plants and other organisms, G.A. CooperDriver, T. Swain, & E.E. Conn (eds). Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York, pp. 195–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, E.L. (1974) Allelopathy. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, T.H., Rasmusson, A.G., & Moller, I.M. (1996) Platanetin and 7-iodo-acridone-4-carboxylic acid are not specific inhibitors of respiratory NAD(P)H dehydrogenases in potato tuber mitochondria. Physiol. Plant. 96:263–267.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Röse, U.S.R., Manukian, A., Heath, R.R., & Tumlinson, J.H. (1996) Volatile semiochemicals released from undamaged cotton leaves. A systemic response of living plants to caterpillar damage. Plant Physiol. 111:487–495.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, H.E., Gollasch, S., Moore, A., Tabe, L.M., Craig, S., Hardie, D.C., Chrispeels, M.J., Spences, D., & Higgins, T.J.V. (1995) Bean a-amylase inhibitor confers resistance to the pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum) in transgenic peas (Pisum sativum L.). Plant Physiol. 107:1233–1239.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schuler, M.A. (1996) The role of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase in plant-insect interactions. Plant Physiol. 112:1411–1419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selmar, D., Liebererei, R., & Biehl, B. (1988) Mobilization and utilization of cyanogenic glycosides. Plant Physiol. 86:711–716.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selmar, D., Grocholewski, S., & Seigler, D.S. (1990) Cyanogenic lipids. Utilization during seedling development of Ungnadia speciosa. Plant Physiol. 93:631–636.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stock, W.D., Le Roux, D., & Van der Heyden, F. (1993) Regrowth and tannin production in woody and succulent karoo shrubs in response to simulated browsing. Oecologia 96:562–568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tahvanainen, J., Julkumen-Tiitto, R., & Kettunen, J. (1985) Phenolic glycosides govern the food selection pattern of willow feeding beetles. Oecologia 67:52–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takabayashi, J. & Dicke, M. (1996) Plant-carnivore mutualism through herbivore-induced carnivore attractants. Trends Plant Sci. 1:109–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuomi, J., Niemela, P., Haukioja, E., & Neuvonen, S. (1984) Nutrient stress: an explanation for plant anti-herbivore responses to defoliation. Oecologia 61:208–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Hoven, W. (1991) Mortalities in kudu (Tragelaphus strepciceros) populations related to chemical defence in trees. J. Afr. Zool. 105:141–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vrieling, K. (1991) Costs and benefits of alkaloids of Senecio jacobaea L. PhD Thesis, University of Leiden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waring, R.H. & Pitman, G.B. (1985) Modifying lodgepole pine stands to change susceptibility to mountain pine beetle attack. Ecology 66:889–897.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waring, R.H., McDonald, A.J.S., Larsson, S., Ericsson, T., Wiren, A., Arwidsson, E., Ericsson, A., & Lohammar, T. (1985) Differences in chemical composition of plants grown at constant relative growth rates with stable mineral nutrition. Oecologia 66:157–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yip, W.-K. & Yang, S.F. (1988) Cyanide metabolism in relation to ethylene production in plant tissues. Plant Physiol. 88:473–476.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, A.A. (1981) Biochemical mechanisms of disease resistance. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 32:21–81.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benhamou, N., Kloepper, J.W., Quadt-Hallman, A., & Tuzun, S. (1996) Induction of defense-related ultrastructural modifications in pea root tissues inoculated with endophytic bateria. Plant Physiol. 112: 919–929.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boller, T. (1995) Chemoperception of microbial signals in plant cells. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 46:189–214.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Broglie, K., Holliday, M., Cressman, R., Riddle, P., Knowtown, S., Mauvais, C.J., & Broglie, R. (1991) Transgenic plants with enhanced resistance to the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani. Science 254:1195–1197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruin, J., Sabelis, M.W., & Dicke, M. (1995) Do plants tap SOS signals from their infested neighbours. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10:167–170.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cammue, B.P.A., Thevissen, K., Hendriks, M., Eggermont, K., Goderis, I.J., Proots, P., Van Damme, J., Osborn, R.P., Guerbette, F., Kader, J.-K., & Broekaert, W.F. (1995) A potent antimicrobial protein from onion seeds showing sequence homology to plant lipid transfer proteins. Plant Physiol. 109:445–455.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, D.W. & Paxton, J.D. (1968) Protection of soybean plants by phytoalexins. Phytopathology 58:1349–1350.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Delaney, T.P. (1997) Genetic dissection of acquired resistance to disease. Plant Physiol. 113:5–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He, S.Y. (1996) Elicitation of plant hypersensitive response by bacteria. Plant Physiol. 112:865–869.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffland, E., Niemann, G.J., Van Pelt, J.A., Pureveen, J.B.M., Eijkel, G.B., Boon, J.J., & Lambers, H. (1996a) Relative growth rate correlates negatively with pathogen resistance in radish. The role of plant chemistry. Plant Cell Environ. 19:1281–1290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffland, E., Hakulinen, I., & Van Pelt, J.A. (1996b) Comparison of systemic resistance induced by avirulent and nonpathogenic Pseudomonas species. Phytopathology 86:757–762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, A.M. & Dangl, J.L. (1996) Logjam at the Styx: Programmed cell death in plants. Trend Plant Sci. 1:114–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kader, J.-C. (1996) Lipid-transfer proteins in plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 47:627–654.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kader, J.-C. (1997) Lipid-transfer proteins: A puzzling family of plant proteins. Trends Plant Sci. 2:66–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linthorst, H. (1991) Pathogenesis-related proteins of plants. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 10:123–150.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mehdy, M.C., Sharma, Y.K., Sathasivan, K., & Bays, N.W. (1996) The role of activated oxygen species in plant disease resistance. Physiol. Plant. 98:365–374.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Osbourn, A. (1996) Saponins and plant defence—a soap story. Trend Plant Sci. 1:4–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pieterse, C.M.J., Van Wees, S.C.M., Hoffland, E., Van Pelt, J.A., & Van Loon, L.C. (1996) Systemic resistance in Arabidopsis induced by biocontrol bacteria is independent of salicylic acid accumulation and pahogenesis-related gene expression. Plant Cell 8:1225–1237.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raikhel, N.V., Lee, H.-I., & Broekaert, W.F. (1993) Structure and function of chitin-binding proteins. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 44:591–615.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryals, J., Uknes, S., & Ward, E. (1994) Systemic acquired resistance. Plant Physiol. 104:1109–1112.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shulaev, V., Silverman, P., & Raskin, I. (1997) Airborne signalling by methyl salicylate in plant pathogen resistance. Nature 385:718–721.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, B.H. & Lambers, H. (1998) The alternative oxidase: is it a respiratory pathway allowing a plant to cope with stress? In: Plant responses to environmental stresses: From phytohormones to genome reorganization, H.R. Lerner (ed). Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stakman, E.C. (1915) Relation between Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici and plants highly resistant to its attack. J. Agric. Res. 4:195–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • VanEtten, H.D., Sandrock, R.W., Wasmnan, C.C., Soby, S.D., McCluskey, K., & Wang, P. (1994) Detoxification of phytoanticipins and phytoalexins by phytopathogenic fungi. Can. J. Bot. 73 (Suppl. 1):S518-S525.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Loon, L.C. (1985) Pathogenesis-related proteins. Plant Mol. Biol. 4:111–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Loon, L.C., Pierpoint, W.S., Boller, T., & Conejero, V. (1994) Recommendations for naming plant pathogenesis-related proteins. Plant Mol. Biol. Rep. 12:245–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Peer, R., Niemann, G.J., & Schippers, B. (1991) Induced resistance and phytoalexin accumulation in biological control of Fusarium wilt of carnation by Pseudomonas sp. strain WCS417r. Phytopathology 81:728–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vierheilig, H., Alt, M., Neuhaus, J.-M., Boller, T., & Wiemken, A. (1993) Colonization of transgenic Nicotiana sylvestris plants, expressing different forms of Nicotiana tabacum chitinase, by the root pathogen Rhizoctonia solani and by the mycorrhizal symbiont Glomus mosseae. Mol. Plant-Microbe Int. 6:261–264.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, G., Kloepper, J.W., & Tuzun, S. (1991) Induction of systemic resistance of cucumber to Colletrotrichium orbiculate by selected strains of plant growth-promiting rhizobacteria. Phytopathology 81:1508–1512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atsatt, P.R. (1983) Host-parasite interactions in higher plants. In: Encyclopedia of plant physiology, N.S. Vol. 12C, O.L. Lange, P.S. Nobel, C.B. Osmond, & H. Ziegler (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 519–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babiker, A.G.T., Ejeta, G., Butler, L.G., & Woodson, W.R. (1993) Ethylene biosynthesis and strigol-induced germination of Striga asiatica. Physiol. Plant. 88:359–365.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cechin, I. & Press, M.C. (1993) Nitrogen relations of the sorghum-Striga hermonthica host-parasite association: Growth and photosynthesis. Plant Cell Environ. 16:237– 247.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, N.J. & Pate, J.S. (1992) Water relations of the mistletoe Amyema fitzgeraldii and its host Acacia acuminata. J. Exp. Bot. 43:1459–1555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, J.H., Musselman, L.J., Wolswinkel, P., & Dörr, I. (1994) Biology and control of Cuscuta. In: Reviews of weed science, Vol. 6, S.O. Duke (ed). Imperial Printing Company, Champaign, pp. 265–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehleringer, J.R., Schulze, E.D., Ziegler, H., Lange, O.L., Farquhar, G.D., & Cowan, I.R. (1985) Xylem-tapping mistletoes: Water or nutrient parasites? Science 227:1479–1481.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ehleringer, J.R., Ullmann, I., Lange, O.L., Farquhar, G.D., Cowan, G.D., & Schulze, E.-D. (1986) Mistletoes: A hypothesis concerning morphological and chemical avoidance of herbivory. Oecologia 70:234–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Einhellig, F.A. & Souza, I.F. (1992) Phytotoxicity of sorgoleone found in grain sorghum root exudates. J. Chem. Ecol. 18:1–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fate, G., Chang, M., & Lynn, D.G. (1990) Control of germination in Striga asiatica: Chemistry of spatial definition. Plant Physiol. 93:201–207.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Govier, R.N., Brown, J.G.S., & Pate, J.S. (1968) Hemiparasitic nutrition in angiosperms. II. Root haustoria and leaf glands of Odontites verna (Bell.) Dum. and their relevance to the abstraction of solutes from the host. New Phytol. 67:863–972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graves, J.D., Press, M.C., Smith, S., & Stewart, G.R. (1992) The carbon canopy economy of the association between cowpea and the parasitic angiosperm Striga gesneroides. Plant Cell Environ. 15:283–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harborne, J.B. (1982) Introduction to ecological biochemistry. Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeschke, W.D. & Hilpert, A. (1997) Sink-stimulated photosynthesis and sink-dependent increase in nitrate uptake: nitrogen and carbon relations of the parasitic association Cuscuta reflexa-Ricinus communis. Plant Cell Environ. 20:47–56.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeschke, W.D., Bäumel, P., Räth, N., Czygan, F.-C., & Proksch, P. (1994) Modelling of the flows and partitioning of carbon and nitrogen in the holoparasite Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. and its host Lupinus albus. L. II. Flows between host and parasite and within parasitized host. J. Exp. Bot. 45:801–812.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeschke, W.D., Bäumel, P., & Räth, N. (1995) Partitioning of nutrients in the system Cuscuta reflexa-Lupinus albus. Aspects Appl. Biol. 42:71–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaren, C.H. (1975) Physiological aspects of the hemiparasite Rhinanthus serotinus. PhD Thesis, University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaren, C.H. & Janssen, G. (1978) Physiological changes in the hemiparasite Rhinanthus serotinus before and after attachment. Physiol. Plant. 42:151–155.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klaren, C.H. & Van de Dijk, S.J. (1976) Water relations of the hemiparasite Rhinanthus serotinus before and after attachment. Physiol. Plant. 38:121–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuijt, J. (1969) The biology of parasitic flowering plants. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuo, J., Pate, J.S., & Davidson, N.J. (1989) Ultrastructure of the haustorial interface and apoplastic continuum between host and the root hemiparasite Olax phyllanthi (Labill.) R. Br. (Olacaceae). Protoplasma 150:27–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, D.C. & Stewart, G.R. (1991) Role of ethylene in the germination of the hemiparasite Striga hermontica. Plant Physiol. 97:1435–1438.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, D.G. & Chang, M. (1990) Phenolic signals in cohabitation: Implications for plant development. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 41:497–526.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, J.D. & Ehleringer, J.R. (1990) Are xylem-tapping mistletoes partially heterotrophic? Oecologia 84:244– 248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pate, J.S. (1995) In: Global change and mediterranean-type ecosystems. Ecological Studies 117, J.M. Moreno, & W.C. Oechel (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 16–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pate, J.S., True, K.C., & Rasins, E. (1991) Xylem transport and storage of amino acids by S.W. Australian mistletoe and their hosts. J. Exp. Bot. 42:441–451.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pate, J.S., Woodall, G., Jeschke, W.D., & Stewart, G.R. (1994) Root xylem transport of amino acids in the root hemiparasite shrub Olax phyllanthi (Labill) R.Br. (Olacaceae) and its multiple hosts. Plant Cell Environ. 17:1263–1273.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popp, M., Mensen, R., Richter, A., Buschmann, H., & Von Willert, D.J. (1995) Solutes and succulence in southern African mistletoes. Trees 9:303–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Press, M.C. & Graves, J.D. (eds) (1995) Parasitic plants. Chapman, & Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Press, M.C., Tuohy, J.M., & Stewart, G.R. (1987) Gas exchange characteristics of the Sorghum-Striga hostparasite association. Plant Physiol. 84:814–819.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richter, A. & Popp, M. (1992) The physiological importance of accumulation of cyclitols in Viscum album L. New Phytol. 121:431–438.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richter, A., Popp, M., Mensen, R., Stewart, G.R., & Von Willert, D.J. (1995) Heterotrophic carbon gain of the parasitic angiosperm Papinanthus oleifolius. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 22:537–544.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schulze, E.-D. & Ehleringer, J.R. (1984) The effect of nitrogen supply on growth and water-use efficiency of xylem-tapping mistletoes. Planta 162:268–275.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schulze, E.-D., Lange, O.L., Ziegler, H., & Gebauer, G. (1991) Carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of mistletoes growing on nitrogen and non-nitrogen fixing hosts and on CAM plants in the Namib desert confirm partial heterotrophy. Oecologia 88:457–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, N., Smirnoff, N., & Stewart, G.R. (1987) Photosynthesis and stomatal characteristics of Striga hermonthica in relation to its parasitic habit. Physiol. Plant. 69:699–703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C.E., Dudley, M.W., & Lynn, D.G. (1990) Vegetative/parasitic transition: Control and plasticity in Striga development. Plant Physiol. 93:208–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, G.R. & Press, M.C. (1990) The physiology and biochemistry of parasitic angiosperms. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 41:127–151.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, A., Martin, J., & Seel, W.E. (1996) Physiology of the parasitic association between maize and witchweed (Striga hermonthica): Is ABA involved? J. Exp. Bot. 47:1057–1065.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tennakoon, K.U. & Pate, J.S. (1996a) Effects of parasitism by a mistletoe on the structure and functioning of branches of its host. Plant Cell Environ. 19:517–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tennakoon, K.U. & Pate, J.S. (1996b) Heterotrophic gain of carbon from hosts by the xylem-tapping root hemiparasite Olax phyllanthi (Olacaceae). Oecologia 105:369–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuquet, C., Farineau, N., & Sallé, G. (1990) Biochemical composition and photosynthetic activity of chloroplasts from Striga hermonthica and Striga aspera, root parasites of field-grown cereals. Physiol. Plant. 78:574–582.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolswinkel, P. (1978) Phloem unloading in stem parts by Cuscuta: the release of 14 C and K+ to the free space at 0°C and 25°C. Physiol. Plant. 42:167–172.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolswinkel, P., Ammerlaan, A., & Peters, H.F.C. (1984) Phloem unloading of amino acids at the site of Cuscuta europaea. Plant Physiol. 75:13–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler, H. (1975) Nature of transported substances. In: Encyclopedia of plant physiology, N.S. Vol. 1, M.H. Zimmermann & J.A. Milburn (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 59–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aerts, R. & Van der Peijl, M.J. (1993) A simple model to explain the dominance of low-productive perennials in nutrient poor habitats. Oikos 66:144–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aerts, R., Boot, R.G.A., & Van der Aart, P.J.M. (1991) The relation between above- and below-ground biomass allocation patterns and competitive ability. Oecologia 87:551–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aguiar, M.R., Soriano, A., & Sala, O.E. (1992) Competition and facilitation in the recruitment of seedlings in Patagonian stetppe. Funct. Ecol. 6:66–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arp, W.J., Drake, B.G., Pockman, W.T., Curtis, P.S., & Whigham, D.F. (1993) Interactions between C3 and C4 salt marsh plant species during four years of exposure to elevated atmospheric CO2. Vegetatio 104/105:133–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ball, M.C., Egerton, J.J.G., Leuning, R., Cunningham, R.B., & Dunne, P. (1997) Microclimate above grass adversely affects growth of seedling snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora). Plant Cell Environ. 20:155–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ballaré, C.L. (1994) Light gaps: Sensing the light opportunities in highly dynamic canopy environments. In: Exploitation of environmental heterogeneity by plants, M.M. Caldwell & R.W. Pearcy (eds). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 73–110.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ballaré, C.L., Scopel, A.L., Jordan, E.T., & Vierstra, R.D. (1994) Signaling among neighboring plants and the development of size inequalities in plant populations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:10094–10098.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ballaré, C.L., Scopel, A.L., & Sanchez, R.A. (1995) Plant photomorphogenesis in canopies, crop growth, and yield. HortScience 30:1172–1182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baruch, Z., Ludlow, M.M., & Davis, R. (1985) Photosynthetic responses of native and introduced C4 grasses from Venezuelan savannas. Oecologia 67:388–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bazzaz, F.A. (1979) The physiological ecology of plant succession. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 10:351–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bazzaz, F.A. (1990) The response of natural ecosystems to the rising global CO2 levels. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 21:167–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bazzaz, F.A. (1996) Plants in changing environments. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berendse, F. & Aerts, R. (1987) Nitrogen-use efficiency: A biologically meaningful definition? Funct. Ecol. 1:293–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berendse, F. & Elberse, W.T. (1989) Competition and nutrient losses from the plant. Causes and consequences of variation in growth rate and productivity of higher plants, H. Lambers, M.L. Cambridge, H. Konings, & T.L. Pons (eds). SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, pp. 269–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biere, A. (1996) Intra-specific variation in relative growth rate: Impact on competitive ability and performance of Lychnis flos-cuculi in habitats differing in soil fertility. Plant Soil 182:313–327.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boerner, R.E.J. & Harris, K.K. (1991) Effects of collembola (Arthropoda) and relative germination date on competition between mycorrhizal Panicum virgatum (Poaceae) and non-mycorrhizal Brassica nigra (Brassicaceae). Plant Soil 136:121–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boller, T. (1995) Chemoperception of microbial signals in plant cells. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 46:189–214.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boot, R.G.A. (1989) The significance of size and morphology of root systems for nutrient acquisition and competition. Causes and Consequences of Variation in Growth Rate and Productivity of Higher Plants, H. Lambers, M.L. Cambridge, H. Konings, & T.L. Pons (eds), pp. 299–311. SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, J.P & Chapin III F.S. (1986) Browsing-woody plant interactions during boreal forest plant succession. In: Forest ecosystems in the alaskan taiga. A synthesis of structure and function, K. Van Cleve, F.S. Chapin, III, P.W. Flanagan, L.A. Viereck, & C.T. Dyrness (eds). Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 213–225.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, J.P. & Kuropat, P.J. (1980) Selection of winter forage by subarctic browsing vertebrates: The role of plant chemistry. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11:261–285.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, M.M., Eissenstat, D.M., Richards, J.H., & Allen, M.F. (1985) Competition for phosphorus: Differential uptake from dual-isotope-labeled soil interspaces between shrub and grass. Science 229.384–386

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, M.M., Richards, J.H., Manwaring, J.H., & Eissenstat, D.M. (1987) Rapid shifts in phosphate acquisition show direct competition between neigbouring plants. Nature 327:6123–6124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callaway, R.M. (1995) Positive interactions among plants. Bot. Rev. 61:306–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, D.R. & Peterson, K.M. (1983) Effects of a CO2- enriched atmosphere on the growth and competition interaction of a C3 and a C4 grass. Oecologia 58:188–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, G.A., Teramura, A.H., & Forseth, I.N. (1989) Photosynthesis in an open field for exotic versus native vines of the south-eastern United States. Can. J. Bot. 67:443–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapin III F.S. (1980) The mineral nutrition of wild plants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Svst. 11:233–260.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chapin III F.S.. (1993) Physiological controls over plant establishment in primary succession. In: Primary succession, J. Miles & D.W.H. Walton (eds). Blackwells, Oxford, pp. 161–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapin III F.S., Walker, L.R., Fastie, C.L., & Sharman, L.C. (1994) Mechanisms of primary succession following deglaciation at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Ecol. Monogr. 64:149–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J.S. & Bazzaz, F.A. (1992) Effects of CO2 and temperature on growth and resource use of cooccurring C3 and C4 annuals. Ecology 73:1244–1259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Antonio, C.M. & Mahall, B.E. (1991) Root profiles and competition between the invasive, exotic perennial, Carpobrotus edulis and two native shrub species in California coastal shrub. Am. J. Bot. 78:885–894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, T.E. (1993) Water sources of plants as determined from xylem-water isotopic composition: Perspectives on plant competition, distribution, and water relations. In: Stable isotopes and plant carbon-water relations, J.R. Ehleringer, A.E. Hall, & G.D. Farquhar (eds). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 465–496.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Den Dubbelden, K.C. & Oosterbeek, B. (1995) The availability of external support affects allocation patterns and morphology of herbaceous climbing plants. Funct. Ecol. 9:628–634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deregibus, V.A., Sanchez, R.A., & Casal, J.J. (1983) Effects of light quality on tiller production in Lolium spp. Plant Physiol. 72:900–902.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Egler, F.E. (1954) Vegetation science concepts. I. Initial floristic composition, a factor in old-field vegetation development. Vegetatio 4:414–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eissenstat, D.M. (1992) Costs and benefits of constructing roots of small diameter. J. Plant Nutr. 15:763–782.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eissenstat, D.M. & Caldwell, M.M. (1987) Characteristics of successful competitors: An evaluation of potential growth rate in two cold desert tussock grasses. Oecologia 71:167–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eissenstat, D.M. & Caldwell, M.M. (1988) Competitive ability is linked to rates of water extraction. A field study of two aridland tussock grasses. Oecologia 75:1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emery, R.J.N., Chinnappa, C.C., & Chmielewski, J.G. (1994) Specialization, plant strategies, and phenotypic plasticity in populations of Stellaria longipes alongan el eva tinnal gradient. Int. T. Plant Sci 155:203–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eviner, V.T. & Chapin III F.S. (1997) Plant-microbial interactions. Nature 385:26–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitter, A.H. (1976) Effects of nutrient supply and competition from other species on root growth of Lolium perenne in soil. Plant Soil 45:177–189.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Francis, R. & Read, D.J. (1994) The contribution of mycorrhizal fungi to the determination of plant community structure. Plant Soil 159:11–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, I.R., Seavers, G.P., Jarvis, P.G., & Smith, H. (1995) Photomorphogenesis and canopy dynamics. Phytochrome-mediated proximity perception accounts for the growth dynamics of canopies of Populus trichocarpa x deltoides “Beaupré”. Plant Cell Environ. 18:475–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, D.E. (1990) Components of resource competition in plant communities. In: Perspectives on plant competition, J.B. Grace & D. Tilman (eds). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 27–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, D.E. & Barton, A.M. (1992) Patterns and consequences of interspecific competition in natural communities: A review of field experiments with plants. Am. Nat. 139:771–801.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottlieb, L.D. (1978) Allocation, growth rates and gas exchange in seedlings of Stephanomeria exigua ssp. coronaria and its recent derivative S. malheurensis. Am. J. Bot. 65:970–977.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grace, J.B. (1990) On the relationship between plant traits and competitive ability. In: Perspectives on plant competition, J.B. Grace & D. Tilman (eds). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 51–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grime, J.P. (1977) Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory. Am. Nat. 111:1169–1194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grime, J.P. & Hunt, R. (1975) Relative growth rate: Its range and adaptive significance in a local flora. J. Ecol. 63:393–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grime, J.P., Mason, G., Curtis, A.V., Rodman, J., Band, S.R., Mowforth, M.A.G., Neal, A.M., & Shaw, S. (1981) A comparative study of germination characteristics in a local flora. J. Ecol. 69:1017–1059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grime, J.P., Crick, J.C., & Rincon, E. (1986) The ecological significance of plasticity. In: Plasticity in plants, D.H. Jennings (ed). Company of Biologists, Cambridge, pp. 5–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grime, J.P., Mackey, J.M.L., Hillier, S.H., & Read, D.J. (1987) Floristic diversity in a model system using experimental microcosms. Nature 328:420–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grime, J.P., Campbell, B.D., Mackey, J.M.L., & Crick, J.C. (1991) Root plasticity, nitrogen capture and competitive ability. In: Plant root growth. An ecological perspective. Special Publication of the British Ecological Society. D. Atkinson (ed). Blackwell Scientific Publications, London. pp. 381–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurevitch, J., Morrow, L.L., Wallace, A., & Walsh, J.S. (1992) A meta-analysis of competition in field experiments. Am. Nat. 140:539–572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartnett, D.C., Hetrick, B.A.D., Wilson, G.W.T., & Gibson, D.J. (1993) Mycorrhizal influence on intra- and interspecific neighbor interactions among co-occurring prairie grasses. J. Ecol. 81:787–795.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, S., Hattersley, P., Von Caemmerer, S., & Osmond C.B. (1995) Are C4 pathway plants threatened by global climatic change? In: Ecophysiology of photosynthesis, E.-D. Schulze & M.M. Caldwell (eds), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 529–549.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hetrick, B.A.D., Wilson, G.W., & Hartnett, D.C. (1989) Relationship between mycorrhizal dependence and competitive ability of two tallgrass prairie species. Can J. Bot. 67:2608–2615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton, J.T., Jenkins, G.J., & Ephraums, J.J. (1990) Climate Change, The IPCC Scientific Assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huber-Sannwald, E., Pyke, D.A., & Caldwell, M.M. (1996) Morphological plasticity following species-specific competition in two perennial grasses. Am. J. Bot. 83:919–931.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, H.B., Polley, H.W., & Mayeux, H.S. (1993) Increasing CO2 and plant-plant interactions: Effects on natural vegetation. Vegetatio 104/105:157–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasperbauer, M.J. (1987) Far-red reflection from green leaves and effects on phytochrome-mediated assimilate partitioning under field conditions. Plant Physiol. 85:350–354.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koide, R.T. & Li, M. (1991) Mycorrhizal fungi and the nutrient ecology of three oldfield annual plant species. Oecologia 85:403–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krannitz, P.G. & Caldwell, M.M. (1995) Root growth responses of three Great Basin perennials to intra- and interspecific contact with other roots. Flora 190:161–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Küppers, M. (1984) Carbon relations and competition between woody species in a central European hedgerow. I. Photosynthetic characteristics. Oecologia 64:332–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambers, H. & Poorter, H. (1992) Inherent variation in growth rate between higher plants: a search for physiological causes and ecological consequences. Adv. Ecol. Res. 23:187–261.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahall, B.E. & Callaway, R.M. (1991) Root communication among desert shrubs. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (USA) 88:874–876.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahall, B.E. & Callaway, R.M. (1992) Root communication mechanisms and intracommunity distribution of two Mojave Desert shrubs. Ecology 73:2145–2151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahmoud, A. & Grime, J.P. (1976) An analysis of competitive ability in three perennial grasses. New Phytol. 77:431–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGraw, J.B. & Chapin III F.S. (1989) Competitive ability and adaptation to fertile and infertile soils in two Eriophorum species. Ecology 70:736–749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milne, A.A. (1928) The house at Pooh Corner. Dutton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mo, H. Kirkham, M.B., He, H., Ballou, L.K., Caldwell, F.W., & Kanemasu, E.T. (1992) Root and shoot weight in a tallgrass prairie under elevated carbon dioxide. Env. Exp. Bot. 32:193–201.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • New, T.R. (1984) A Biology of acacias. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, E.I., Eason, W.R., Eissenstat, D.M., & Ramos, M.I.F.R. (1992) Interactions between plants: The role of mycorrhizae. Mycorrhiza 1:47–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nobel, P.S. (1984) Extreme temperatures and thermal tolerances for seedlings of desert succulents. Oecologia 62:310–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owens, M.K. (1996) The role of leaf and canopy-level gas exchange in the replacement of Quercus virginiana (Fagaceae) by Juniperus ashei (Cupressaceae) in semiarid savannas. Am. J. Bot. 83:617–623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owensby, C.E., Coyne, P.I., Ham, J.M., Auen, L.M., & Knapp, A.K. (1993) Biomass production in a tallgrass prairie ecosystem exposed to ambient and elevated CO2. Ecol. Appl. 3:644–653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pammenter, N.W., Drennan, P.M., & Smith, V.R. (1986) Physiological and anatomical aspects of photosynthesis of two Agrostis species at a sub-antarctic island. New Phytol. 102:143–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polley, H.W., Johnson, H.B., & Mayeuz, H.S. (1994) Increasing CO2: Comparative responses of the C4 grass Schizachyrium and grassland invader Prosopis. Ecology 75:976–988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poorter, H., Van de Vijver, C.A.D.M., Boot, R.G.A., & Lambers, H. (1995) Growth and carbon economy of a fast-growing and a slow-growing grass species as dependent on nitrate supply. Plant Soil 171:217–227.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Putz, F.E. (1984) The natural history of lianas on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Ecology 65:1713–1724.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raaimakers, D., Boot, R.G.A., Dijkstra, P., Pot, S., & Pons T.L. (1995) Photosynthetic rates in relation to leaf phosphorous content in pioneer versus climax tropical rainforest species. Oecologia 102:120–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read, D.J. (1991) Mycorrhizas in ecosystems. Experientia 47:376–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reich, P. (1993) Reconciling apparent discrepancies among studies relating life span, structure and function of leaves in contrasting plant life forms and climates: “The blind man and the elephant retold.” Funct. Ecol. 7:721–725.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, H.L. (1996) Effects of elevated CO2 on plants grown in competition. In: Carbon dioxide, populations, and communities, C. Körner & F.A. Bazzaz (eds). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 273–286.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, H.L. & D’Antonio, C. (1996) The ecological significance of plasticity in root weight ratio in response to nitrogen. Opinion. Plant Soil 185:75–97.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, J.H. & Caldwell, M.M. (1987) Hydraulic lift: substantial nocturnal water transport between soil layers by Artemisia tridentata roots. Oecologia 73:486–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritchie, G.A. (1997) Evidence for red: far red signaling and photomorphogenic growth response in Douglas-fir Pseudostuga menziesii) seedlings. Tree Physiol. 17:161–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, J.P. & Kotanen, P.M. (1994) Terrestrial plant tolerance to herbivory. Trends Ecol. Evolu. 9: 145–148.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryser, P. (1996) The importance of tissue density for growth and life span of leaves and roots: A comparison of five ecologically contrasting grasses. Funct. Ecol. 10:717–723.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryser P. & Lambers H. (1995) Root and leaf attributes accounting for the performance of fast- and slowgrowing grasses at different nutrient supply. Plant Soil 170:251–265.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schläpfer, B. & Ryser, P. (1996) Leaf and root turnover of three ecologically contrasting grass species in relation to their performance along a productivity gradient. Oikos 75:398–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schlumbaum, A., Mauch, F., Vögeli, U., & Boller, T. (1986) Plant chitinases are potent inhibitors of fungal growth. Nature 324:365–367.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stock, W.D., Wienand, K.T., & Baker A.C. (1995) Impacts of invading N2- fixing Acacia species on patterns of nutrient cycling in two Cape Ecosystems: Evidence from soil incubation studies and 15N natural abundance values. Oecologia 101:375–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilman, D. (1988) Plant Strategies and the Dynamics and Function of Plant Communities. Princeton University Press, Princeton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilman, D. (1990) Mechanisms of plant competition for nutrients: The elements of a predictive theory of competition. In: Perspective on plant competition, J.B. Grace & D. Tilman (eds). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 117–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilman, D. & Wedin, D. (1991) Dynamics of nitrogen competition between successional grasses. Ecology 72:1038–1049.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R.M., Alcorn, S.M., Olin, G., & Booth, J.A. (1966) The influence of shade, soil, and water on saguaro seedling establishment. Bot. Gaz. 127:95–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Bavel, C.H.M. & Baker, J.M. (1985) Water transfer by plant roots from wet to dry soil. Naturwissenschaften 72:606–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vierheilig, H., Iseli, B., Alt, M., Raikhel, N., Wiemken, A., & Boller, T. (1996) Resistance of Urtica dioica to mycorrhizal colonization: A possible involvement of Urtica dioica agglutinin. Plant Soil 183:131–136.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, L.R. & Chapin III F.S. (1986) Physiological controls over seedling growth in primary succession on an Alaskan floodplain. Ecology 67:1508–1523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wedin, D.A. & Tilman, D. (1990) Species effects on nitrogen cycling: A test with perennial grasses. Oecologia 84:433–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, S.-C. & Osmond, C.B. (1991) Elevated atmospheric partial pressure of CO2 and plant growth. III. Interactions between Triticum aestivum (C3) and Echinochloa frumentacea (C4) during growth in mixed culture under different CO2, N nutrition and irradiance treatments, with emphasis on below-ground responses estimated using 13C value of root biomass. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 18:137–152.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, J.T. (1978) Capsella bursa-pastoris seeds. Are they “carnivorous”? Carniv. Plant Newslett. 7:39–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, C. (1875) Insectivorous plants. Murray, London.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, F. (1878) Experiments on the nutrition and growth of Drosera rotundifolia. J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 17:17–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, K.W., Pate, J.S., & Bailey, W.J. (1980) Nitrogen nutrition of the tuberous sundew Drosera erythrorhiza Lindl, with special reference to catch of arthropod fauna by glandular leaves. Aust. J. Bot. 28:283–297.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, G.E. & Andersson, J.W. (1976) Studies on the nutrition and growth of Drosera species with reference to the carnivorous habit. New Phytol. 76:129–141.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fagerberg, W.R. & Howe, D.G. (1996) A quantitative study of tissue dynamics in Venus’ fly trap Dionaea muscipula (Droseraceae). II. Trap reopening. Am. J. Bot. 83:836–842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodick, D. & Sievers, A. (1988) The action potential of Dionaea muscipula Ellis. Planta 174:8–18.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hodick, D. & Sievers, A. (1989) On the mechanism of trap closure of Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula Ellis). Planta 179:32–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson, P.S., Nordell, K.O., Carlsson, B.A., & Svensson, B.M. (1991) The effect of soil nutrient status on prey utilization in four carnivorous plants. Oecologia 86:1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knight, S.E. (1992) The costs of carnivory in the common bladderwort, Utricularia macrorhiza. Oecologia 89:348–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lüttge, U. (1983) Ecophysiology of carnivorous plants. In: Encyclopedia of plant physiology, N.S. Vol. 12C, O.L. Lange, P.S. Nobel, C.B. Osmond, & H. Ziegler (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 489–517.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mabberley, D.J. (1993) The plant-book. A portable dictionary of the higher plants. Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulze, E.-D., Gebauer, G., Schulze, W., & Pate, J.S. (1991) The utilization of nitrogen from insect capture by different growth forms of Drosera from southwest Australia. Oecologia 87:240–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulze, W. & Schulze, E.-D. (1990) Insect capture and growth of the insectivorous Drosera rotundifolia L. Oecologia 82:427–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thum, M. (1988) The significance of carnivory for the fitness of Drosera in its natural habitat. 1. The reactions of Drosera intermedia and D. rotundifolia to supplementary insect feeding. Oecologia 75:472–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Plant Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Utrecht University, 3584 CA, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Hans Lambers Ph.D. & Thijs L. Pons Ph.D.

  2. Plant Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Western Australia, 6907, Nedlands, WA, Australia

    Hans Lambers Ph.D.

  3. Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, 99775, Fairbanks, AK, USA

    F. Stuart Chapin III Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Hans Lambers Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. F. Stuart Chapin III Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Thijs L. Pons Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lambers, H., Chapin, F.S., Pons, T.L. (1998). Biotic Influences. In: Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2855-2_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2855-2_9

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4757-2857-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-2855-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation