Gender, Interaction, and Inequality in Organizations

  • Patricia Yancey Martin
Chapter

Abstract

People today live much of their lives in and through formal organizations. Worshipping, learning to add and subtract, having babies, fighting wars, and making laws are organizational activities. The thesis of this chapter is that formal organizations are highly gendered, in addition to being ubiquitous, and are excellent sites for studying gender interaction and inequality (cf. Acker, 1990; Burrell & Hearn, 1989).

Keywords

Sexual Harassment Gender Inequality American Sociological Review Male Manager Internal Labor Market 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Acker, J. (1989). Doing comparable worth: Gender, class, and pay equity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
  2. Acker, J. (1990). Jobs, hierarchies, and sexuality: Some further thoughts on gender and organizations. Gender & Society, 4, 139–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Aires, E. (1976). Interaction patterns and themes of male, female, and mixed groups. Small Group Behavior, 7, 7–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Alderfer, C.P., & Smith, K.K. (1982). Studying intergroup relations embedded in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 27, 35–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Baran, B. (1985). Office automation and women’s work: The technological transformation of the insurance industry. In M. Castells (Ed.), High technology, space, and society (pp. 143–171 ). Beverly Hills: Sage.Google Scholar
  6. Barnard, C.I. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  7. Baron, J.N., & Bielby, W. (1984). The organization of work in a segmented economy. American Sociological Review, 49, 454–473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Baron, J.N., & Bielby, W. (1985). Organizational barriers to gender equality: Sex segregation of jobs and opportunities. In A. Rossi (Ed.), Gender and the new life course (pp. 233–251 ). New York: Aldine.Google Scholar
  9. Baron, J.N., & Bielby, W. (1986). The proliferation of job titles in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 31, 561–586.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Baron, J.N., Davis-Blake, A., & Bielby, W.T. (1986). The structure of opportunity: How promotion ladders vary within and among organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 31, 248–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Baron, J.N., & Newman, A.E. (1990). For what it’s worth: Organizations, occupations and the value of work done by women and nonwhites. American Sociological Review, 55, 155–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Baron, R.D., & Norris, G.H. (1976). Sexual divisions and the dual labor market. In D. Leonard & S. Allen (Eds.), Dependence and exploitation in work and marriage (pp. 47–69 ). London: Longman.Google Scholar
  13. Bartlett, K.T. (1990). Feminist legal methods. Harvard Law Review, 103, 829–888.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. de Beauvoir, S. (1974). The second sex. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
  15. Bianchi, S.M., & Spain, D. (1986). American women in transition. New York: Russell Sage.Google Scholar
  16. Bibb, R., & Form W.H. (1977). The effects of industrial, occupational, and sex stratificaton on wages in blue collar markets. Social Forces, 55, 974–996.Google Scholar
  17. Bielby, W.T., & Baron J.N. (1984). A woman’s place is with other women: Sex segregation within organizations. In B. Reskin (Ed.), Sex segregation in the workplace: Trends, explanations, remedies. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
  18. Bielby, W.T., & Baron, J.N. (1986). Men and women at work: Sex segregation and statistical discrimination. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 759–799.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Bielby, W.T., & Baron, J.N. (1987). Undoing discrimination: Job integration and comparable worth. In C. Bose & G. Spitze (Eds.), Ingredients for women’s employment policy (pp. 211–229 ). Albany: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
  20. Blau, P.M. (1977). Inequality and heterogeneity. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
  21. Blum, L. (1987). Priorities and limits of the comparable worth movement. Gender & Society, 1, 380–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Blum, L. (1991). Between feminism and labor: The significance of the comparable worth movement. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
  23. Boyd, M., Mulvihill, M.A., & Myles, J. (1990). Patriarchy and postindustrialism: Women and power in the service economy. Departmental Working Paper 90–1. Carleton University: Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Ottawa, Canada.Google Scholar
  24. Brown, L.K. (1988). Female managers in the United States and in Europe: Corporate boards, MBA credentials, and the image/illusion of progress. In N.J. Adler & D. Izraeli, (Eds.), Women in management worldwide. London: M. E. Sharpe.Google Scholar
  25. Burrell, G., & Hearn, J. (1989). The sexuality of organization. In J. Hearn et al. (Eds.), The sexuality of organization (pp. 1–28 ). London: Sage.Google Scholar
  26. Chase, S.E. (1988). Making sense of “the woman who becomes a man.” In A.D. Todd & S. Fisher (Eds.), Gender and discourse: The power of talk. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Co.Google Scholar
  27. Chase, S.E., & Bell C.S. (1990). Ideology, discourse, and gender: How gatekeepers talk about women in a male-dominated occupation. Social Problems, 37, 163–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Clegg, S., & Dunkerley, D. (1979). Organization, class, and control. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
  29. Cockburn, C. (1988). Machinery of dominance: Women, men, and technical know-how. Boston: Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar
  30. Cohn, S. (1985). The feminization of clerical labor in Great Britain. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
  31. Connell, R.W. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person, and sexual politics. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
  32. Cornfield, D.B. (1989). Becoming a mighty voice: Conflict and leadership in the United Furniture Workers of America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
  33. DiNitto, D., Martin, P.Y. & Harrison, D. (1982). Sexual discrimination in higher education: A multi-level model for cross-national analysis of women’s problems and prospects. Higher Education Review, 14, 33–54.Google Scholar
  34. Dressel, P. (1987). Patriarchy and social welfare work. Social Problems, 34, 294–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Dressel, P., et al. (1988). Welfare workers as surplus population: A useful model. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 15, 87–103.Google Scholar
  36. Eagly, A., Makhijani, M.G., & Klonsky, B.G. (in press). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin Google Scholar
  37. Edwards, R. (1979). Contested terrain: The transformation of the workplace in the twentieth century. New York: Harper Colophon.Google Scholar
  38. Feldberg, R. (1980). “Union fever”: Organizing among clerical workers, 19001930. Radical America, 3, 53–67.Google Scholar
  39. Fenstermaker, S., West, C., & Zimmerman, D.H. (1991). Stalking gender inequality: New conceptual terrain. In R. Lesser Blumberg (Ed.), Gender, family and economy: The triple overlap. Beverly Hills: Sage.Google Scholar
  40. Ferguson, K. (1984). The feminist case against bureaucracy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
  41. Finch, J. (1981). Married to the job: Women’s incorporation in men’s work. London: Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
  42. Glenn, E., & Tolbert, C. (1987). Technology and emerging patterns of stratification for women of color: Race and gender in computer work. In B. Wright (Ed.), Women, work and technology, (pp. 318–331 ). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
  43. Godbey, K.L. (1987). Explaining State Comparable Worth Initiatives in the United States. Unpublished dissertation, Florida State University.Google Scholar
  44. Gronn, P.C. (1983). Talk as the work: The accomplishment of school administration. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Gutek, B.A. (1985). Sex and the workplace: Impact of sexual behavior and harassment on women, men, and organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
  46. Gutek, B.A. (1989). Sexuality in the workplace: Key issues in social research and organizational practice. In J. Hearn, D.L. Sheppard, P. Tancred-sheriff, & G. Burrell (Eds.), The sexuality of organization (pp. 56–70 ). London: Sage.Google Scholar
  47. Hardesty, S., & Jacobs, N. (1986). Success and betrayal: The crisis of women in corporate America. New York: Frankl in Watts.Google Scholar
  48. Hearn, J., & Parkin, P.W. (1983). Gender and organizations: A selective review and critique of a neglected area. Organization Studies, 4, 219–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Hearn, J., & Parkin, P.W. (1987). Sex at work: The power and paradox of organization sexuality. New York: St. Martin’s.Google Scholar
  50. Hearn, J., & Parkin, P.W. (1988). Women, men and leadership: A critical review of assumptions, practices, and change in the industrialized nations. In N.J. Adler & D. Izraeli (Eds.), Women in management worldwide (pp. 17–40 ). New York: M. E. Sharpe.Google Scholar
  51. Hochschild, A. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
  52. Hochschild, A. (1989). The second shift: Working parents and the revolution at home. New York: Viking/Penguin.Google Scholar
  53. Izraeli, D. (1983). Sex effects or structural effects? An empirical test of Kanter’s theory of proportions. Social Forces, 61, 153–165.Google Scholar
  54. Izraeli, D. (1984). The attitudinal effects of gender mix in union committees. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 37, 212–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Jackall, R. (1988). Moral mazes: The world of corporate managers. New York & London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  56. Kanter, R.M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic. Katz, D., & Kahn, R.L. (1986). The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
  57. Lewis, M. (1989). Liar’s poker: Rising through the wreckage of Wall Street. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
  58. Lieberson, S. (1985). Making it count. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
  59. Marglin, S.A. (1976). What do bosses do? The origins and functions of hierarchy in capitalist production. In A. Gorz (Ed.), The division of labour: The labour process and class struggle in capitalism (pp. 13–54 ). Sussex: Harvester Press.Google Scholar
  60. Margolis, D.R. (1979). The managers: Corporate life in America. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
  61. Martin, P.Y. (1980). Women, labor markets, and work organizations: A critical analysis. In D. Dunkerley & G. Salaman (Eds.), The international yearbook of organization studies 1980 (pp. 128–150 ). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
  62. Martin, P.Y. (1982). “Fair Science”: Test or assertion? Reply to Cole’s Women in Science. Sociological Review, 30,478–508.Google Scholar
  63. Martin, P.Y. (1985). Group sex composition in work organizations: A structural-normative model. In S. Bacharach & R. Mitchell (Eds.), Research in the sociology of organizations (Vol. 4, pp. 311–349 ). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
  64. Martin, P.Y. (1990). The moral politics of organizations: Reflections of an unlikely feminist. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 25, 451–470.Google Scholar
  65. Martin, P.Y. (1991). Feminism and management. In E. Fagenson (Ed.), Women in management: Trends, perspectives, and challenges, Newbury Park, CT: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
  66. Martin, P.Y., & Cherneskey R.H. (1989). Women’s prospects for leadership in social welfare: A political economy perspective. Administration in Social Work, 13, 117–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Martin, P.Y., Harrison, D. & DiNitto, D. (1983). Advancement for women in hierarchical organizations: A multi-level analysis of problems and prospects. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 19, 19–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Martin, P.Y., Seymour, S., Godbey, K., Courage, M., & Tate, R. (1988). Corporate, union, feminist, and pro-family leaders’ views on work-family relations. Gender & Society, 2, 385–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Martin, P.Y., & Shanahan, K. (1983). Transcending the effects of sex composition in small groups. Social Work with Groups, 6, 19–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. McGrath, J.E. (1986). Studying groups at work: Ten critical needs for theory and practice. In P.S. Goodman (Ed.), Designing effective work groups (pp. 362391 ). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
  71. Meyer, J., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83, 44–63.Google Scholar
  72. Milkman, R. (1980). Organizing the sexual division of labor: Historical perspectives on women’s work and the American labor movement. Socialist Review, 10, 95–150.Google Scholar
  73. Milkman, R. (1982). Redefining women’s work: The sexual division of labor in the auto industry during World War II. Feminist Studies, 8, 337–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Miller, G. (1991). Human service work as rhetoric. In Enforcing the work ethic (pp. 1–33 ). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
  75. Miller, J. (1986). Pathways in the workplace. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Morrison, A.M., & Von Glinow, M.A. (1990). Women and minorities in management. American Psychologist, 45, 200–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Mueller, C.McC. (1984). Women’s organizational strategies in state legislatures. In J.A. Flammang (Ed.), Political women: Current roles in state and local government (pp. 156–176 ). Beverly Hills: Sage.Google Scholar
  78. Pringle, R. (1989). Secretaries talk: Sexuality, power, and work. New York: Verso.Google Scholar
  79. Quinn, R.E. (1980). Coping with cupid: The formation, impact, and management of romantic relationships in organizations. In D.A. Neugarten & J.M. Shafritz (Eds.), Sexuality in organizations (pp. 38–52 ). Oak Park, IL: Moore Publishing Company.Google Scholar
  80. Reskin, B. (1988). Bringing men back in: Sex differentiation and the devaluation of women’s work. Gender & Society, 2, 58–81.Google Scholar
  81. Reskin, B., & Hartmann, H. (1986). Women’s work, men’s work: Sex segregation on the job. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
  82. Reskin, B., & Padavic, I. (1988). Supervisors as gatekeepers: Male supervisors’ response to women’s integration in plant jobs. Social Problems, 35, 536–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Reskin, B., & Roos, P. (1987). Sex segregation and status hierarchies. In C. Bose & G. Spitze (Eds.), Ingredients for women’s employment policy. Albany: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
  84. Reskin, B., & Roos, P. (1990). Gender Queues, job queues: Explaining women’s inroads into male occupations. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
  85. Reskin, B., & Ross, C. (1991). Job segregation, authority and earnings among women and men managers. Univeristy of Illinois: Department of Sociology.Google Scholar
  86. Ridgeway, C. (1982). Status in groups: The importance of motivation. American Sociological Review, 47, 76–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Ridgeway, C. (1988). Gender differences in task groups: A status and legitimacy account. In M. Webster & M. Foschi (Eds.), Status generalization: New theory and research (pp. 188–206 ). Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
  88. Rosen, M. (1989, September). The Hurd instinct. MS Magazine, 66–71.Google Scholar
  89. Schwartzman, H.B. (1986). Research on work group effectiveness: An anthropological critique. In P.S. Goodman (Ed.), Designing effective work groups (pp. 237–276 ). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
  90. Scott, K.P. (1986). Effects of sex-fair materials on pupils attitudes, comprehension, and interest. Amercian Educational Research Journal, 23, 105–116.Google Scholar
  91. Skvoretz, J. (1981). Extending expectation states theory: Comparative status models of participation in N person groups. Social Forces, 59, 752–770.Google Scholar
  92. Smith, D. (1987). The everyday world as problematic: A feminist sociology. Boston: Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar
  93. South, S.J., Bonjean, C.M., Markham, W.T., & Corder, J. (1982). Social structure and intergroup interaction. American Sociological Review, 47, 587–599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. South, S.J., Bonjean, C.M., Markham, W.T., & Corder, J. (1983). Female labor force participation and the organizational experiences of male workers. The Sociological Quarterly, 24, 367–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Spangler, E., Gordon, M.A., & Pipkin, R.M. (1978). An empirical test of Kanter’s hypothesis. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 160–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Steinberg, R. (1987). Radical challenges in a liberal world: The mixed success of comparable worth. Gender & Society, 1, 466–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Szafran, R. (1983). A note on recruitment and reward equity of organizations: U.S. universities before affirmative action. Social Forces, 61, 1109–1118.Google Scholar
  98. Taps, J., & Martin, P.Y. (1990). Gender compsition, attributional accounts, and women’s influence and likability in task groups. Small Group Research, 21, 471–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Thompson, J.D. (1967). Organizations in action. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
  100. Tienda, M., Smith, S.S., & Ortiz, V. (1987). Industrial restructuring, gender segregation, and sex differences in earnings. American Sociological Review, 52, 195–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. Toren, N., & Kraus, V. (1987). The effects of minority size on women’s position in academia. Social Forces, 65, 1090–1100.Google Scholar
  102. West, C. (1982). Why can’t a woman be more like a man? Work and Occupations, 9, 5–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. West, C., & Zimmerman, D. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1, 125–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. Wharton, A., & Baron, J.N. (1987). So happy together? The impact of gender segregation on men at work. American Sociological Review, 52, 574–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. Williams, C. (1989). Gender differences at work: Women and men in nontraditional occupations. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
  106. Zimmer, L. (1987). How women reshape the prison guard role. Gender & Society, 1, 415–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. Zimmer, L. (1988). Tokenism and women in the workplace: The limits of gender-neutral theory. Social Problems, 35, 64–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1992

Authors and Affiliations

  • Patricia Yancey Martin

There are no affiliations available

Personalised recommendations